LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



Shelf .!^3.^ 

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



JrV '^ "^V -f ■' 'T" 




Muscat of Alcxaiulria Raisin Grape, First Crop. One-half Natural Size. 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 



A PRACTICAL TREATISE 



ON THE 



RAISIN GRAPES. 



THEIR HISTORY, CULTURE AND CURING. 



n? BY GUSTAV EISEN 






SAN FRANCISCO : 
H. S. CROCKER & COMPANY, STATIONERS AND PRINTERS, 

1890. 



w> 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1890, by 

GUSTAV EISEN, 
in the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 



'^^^ 



^"^ 






PP^EFflGE. 



^^F late years the raisin industry has been prominently before the 
[gj horticulturists of California. Many people now make their living and 
acquire wealth by the cultivation of the raisin grapes, and many are now 
studying the methods of cultivation, pruning, curing and packing while wait- 
ing for their vines to bear. The literature of the raisin industry is a very 
scant one, and, with the exception of a few notices in works of travel, or in 
treatises on general fruit culture, we find not a single book in which this 
important and interesting industry is made the special subject of study and 
discussion, A book on the raisin industry may, therefore, be considered 
timely. I have endeavored to so write it that it would contain something 
of interest to all those connected with the growing and curing of the raisin 
grapes, to those who have already succeeded in building up fame and 
fortune, as well as to those who have just begun the cultivation of the 
vine, and who have as yet only realized the pleasures, but not the profits, 
of the industry. The historical part of the book will principally interest 
the former; for the latter the practical part on cultivation, pruning, curing 
and packing is intended. 

As our climate and other conditions differ from those of any other country 
in the world, so must our methods of cultivation and curing differ from 
those practiced elsewhere. Foreign methods, while interesting and, in 
some respects, of great importance to us, had to be greatly modified and 
improved upon before our growers succeeded in producing raisins equaling 
the best from the raisin districts of the Old World. It has cost years of 
experimenting and study to attain success, as well as much money and dis- 
appointment to many who had nothing to guide them when they commenced. 

These processes by which success was achieved can now become the 
property of all, and a safe guide to even the most inexperienced beginners. 
The methods advocated here are the result of practical experience of the 
author, as well as of the most successful raisin-growers of this State. 

For the benefit of those of our readers who now study the raisin indus- 
try at a distance, but whose steps may in the future be directed to this 
Coast, a descriptive tour through the raisin districts of our State has 
been added in order that they may see what our country is like, — the 
country of the raisin and the fig; the country of almonds, olives, oranges 
and prunes; the country where health, profit and enjoyment are more than 
anywhere else derived from horticultural pursuits. It is for these prospective 
readers, that the short biographical sketches of our principal raisin-men are 
intended, — short records of the pioneers of the raisin industry, — men who 
have broken the way which is now easy to travel, and through whose ex- 
perience and perseverance others are now being benefited. 

GUSTAV EISEN. 
San Francisco, Cal., October, 1890. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



PAGE. 

HISTORICAL 5 

Raisins 5 

The Currant 6 

Muscatels 7 

Dehesa Raisins 7 

Lexias or Lye-dipped Raisins 9 

Various Kinds of Raisins 10 

Muscatels ; Currants ; Belvideres ; Black Smyruas ; California Malagas ; California 

Sun-dried Sultanas ; Seedless Muscatels ; Thompson Seedless ; Dried Grapes ; 
I<exias; California Dipped ; Smyrnas ; Faros; Huascos. 

RAISIN DISTRICTS 10 

Foreign Districts 10 

Raisins in Ancient Times 10 

Modern Raisin Districts 11 

The Malaga District 12 

Extent and Age ; Climate ; Soil ; l,ocation of the Vineyard ; Varieties of Grapes ; 

Characteristics of the Raisins ; Yield of Grapes ; Distances of the Vines ; Prun- 
ing ; Manuring and Fertilizing ; Drying Floors or Sequeros ; Drying and Curing ; 
Packing ; Labor. 

Valencia and Denia 15 

Extent of the District ; Soils and Appearance of the District ; Climate ; Irrigation ; 

Quality of the Raisins ; Planting and Care ; Dipping and Scalding ; Drying and 
Curing ; Packing and Disposing of the Crop ; Export and Production. 

Corinth and Currants 22 

Historical and Geographical Notes ; Characteristics and Quality ; Soil and Irrigation ; 

Preparation of the Land; Distances of the Currant Vines; Care of Cuttings, 
Planting and Grafting ; Pruning the Vines; Care of the Vineyard ; Ringing the 
Branches; Drying and Curing ; Cost of Currant Vineyards in Greece; Con- 
sumption and Production. 

Smyrna Raisins 30 

Districts in Smyrna ; Climate ; Care of the Vines; Dipping, Drying and Curing ; 

Production and Export ; Cost of Vineyards in Smyrna ; Other Varieties of 
Raisins. 

Italy and Italian Raisins 36 

Lipari and Belvidere ; Pantellaria ; Calabria. 

Chile and Huasco Raisins 36 

•Characteristics; Location ; Varieties ; Soils; Climate; Irrigation ; The Vineyard ; 

Dr5ring and Curing. 

California Raisin Districts 38 

A General Review 38 

Early History; Later Planting ; Acreage and Crops. 

Yolo and Solano 40 

Soil and Climate ; The Vineyard; The Crop. 

Northern California 43 

General Remarks; Placer County; Yuba County; Sutter County; Colusa County; 

Butte County; Tehama County; Shasta County. 

Fresno, Merced, Tulare and Kern 44 

Extent and Location; Soils and Climate ; Irrigation; The Vineyard; Pruning and 

Other Operations ; The Crop. 



11 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

San Bernardino County 48 

Location and Acreage ; Climate; Irrigation; Soils; The Vineyard ; The Crop; The 

Profits and Other Items. 

Orange County and Santa Ana 52 

General Remarks; Location; Climate; Soils and Ripening ; The Vineyard; The 

Crop and its Curing ; Yield and Profits. 

San Diego and El Cajon 55 

Location and Acreage ; Climate and Rainfall ; Soils ; The Vines and the Vineyard ; 

The Crop. 
Other Raisin Districts 59 

CLIMATIC CONDITIONS, SOILS, LOCATION AND IRRIGATION 60 

Climatic Conditions Favorable and Unfavorable to the Raisin Industry ... 60 

Limits of the Raisin Districts ; Dry Seasons, Spring and Fall Rains ; Winter Rains ; 

Frost in Spring and Vl^inter ; Summer Temperature; Winds, Injurious and 
Beneficial ; Fogs and Moisture in the Air ; Ideal Conditions of Climate. 

Soils 67 

General Remarks ; Malaga ; Valencia and Denia ; Smyrna ; Zante ; ChUe ; Fresno ; 

Other Soils in San Joaquin Valley ; Orange County ; Redlands and Riverside ; 
El Cajon ; Subsoils ; Hardpan Soils ; Comparative Value of Soils ; Alkali Soils ; 
Fertilizing. 

Irrigation 77 

Introductory Notes ; the Necessity of Irrigating the Raisin Vines ; Health and Lon- 
gevity of Irrigated Vines; The Bearing Quality of Irrigated Vines; Quality of 
Irrigated Grapes ; Various Methods of Irrigation ; Irrigation by Flooding ; Irri- 
gation by Furrowing; iSubirrigation ; Seepage; Drainage The Influence of 
Irrigation on the Soil. 

The Raisin Grapes 87 

Introductory Notes ; Muscatel or Gordo Blanco ; Muscat of Alexandria ; Huasco 

Muscat ; Other Varieties of Muscat ; Seedless Sultana ; Black Currant ; Other 
Varieties of Currants ; Thompson Seedless ; Other Seedless Grapes ; Malaga ; 
Feher Szagos ; Other Raisin Grapes. 

DISEASES AND INSECT PESTS 93 

Powdery Mildew or Uucinula 93 

General Notes ; Characteristics ; History and Distribution ; Remedies. 

Downy Mildew or Peronospora 95 

General Notes. 

The Vine Plague 96 

Characteristics ; Nature and Cause ; Damages ; Remedies. 

Leaf-hopper 98 

Characteristics ; Damages ; Distribution ; Remedies. 

Red Spider loo 

Characteristics ; Remedies. 

Caterpillars loo 

Characteristics ; Damages ; Remedies. 

Black-knot 102 

Characteristics ; Remedies. 

Grasshoppers 102 

General Notes ; Remedies. 

THE RAISIN VINEYARD 104 

Planting 104 

Distances for Muscat Vines ; the Marking Out of a Vineyard ; Relative Value of Cut- 
tings and Rooted Vines ; The Making of Cuttings ; The Care of Cuttings ; Plant- 
ing Cuttings ; Care of Young Cuttings ; Transporting Cuttings to Distant Parts ; 
Rooting Cuttings; Care of Rooted Cuttings; Planting Rooted Vines; Proper 
Time for Planting ; Cost of Cuttings and Rooted Vines ; Winter Plowing ; Plow- 
ing Devices ; Cultivation ; Back-furrowing ; Cross-plowing ; Weed-cutters ; 
Cutter-sled; Hoeing; Time for Cultivation. 



TABIvK OP CONTENTS. W 

Grafting the Miiscat on Other Stocks n? 

Time for Graftiag Raisin-vines ; Points to be Observed in Grafting ; Various 

Methods of Grafting ; Stocks and their Influence. 

Various Summer Work 121 

Sulphuring ; Tjring Over ; Covering the Vines ; Thinning the Crop ; Ringing the 

Vines ; The Vineyard Labors of the Year. 

Pruning 124 

Winter Pruning or Pruning Hard Wood ; Bleeding of the Vines ; Summer Pruning 

or Pruning Green Wood ; Root-pruning ; Suckering. 

Various Vineyard Tools 13° 

General Notes ; The Sheep's-foot ; The Planting-bar; The Dibble ; Planting Chains; 

Spades ; Hoes ; Plows ; Cultivators ; Randel Disc Cultivators ; The Ash-trough ; 

Sulphuring Cans and Bellows ; The Cutter-sled ; Vineyard Trucks ; Shears. 

DRYING AND CURING 133 

California Sun-dried Raisins I33 

Notes; Time of Ripening ; Signs of Maturity ; Picking; Cleaning; Drying on 

Trays ; Turning ; Reversing ; Slanting the Trays ; Elevating the Trays ; Stack- 
ing Against Rain and Dew ; Taking Up ; Covering ; Drying-floors ; Dryers ; 
Sweatboxes ; Trays for Drying. 

California Lye-dipped Raisins i49 

General Notes ; Dipping Process ; Drying and Curing ; Stemming, Grading and 

Packing. 

THE PACKING-HOUSE ^53 

Buildings and Mechanical Appliances I53 

The Packing-house ; The Stemmer and Grader ; The Sweating-house ; The Presses; 

Boxes and Cartoons ; Packing Frames and Packing Trays ; Facing-plate ; 
Scales ; Labeling Press ; Tables ; Bags and Bagholders ; Trucks ; Trays for 
Weighing ; Followers ; Paper ; Tin Boxes. 

Loose Raisins '5° 

Stemming and Assorting ; Packing and Cleaning ; Sacking ; Facing, Top-up 

Method ; Facing, Top-down Method ; Comparative Value of the Two Methods. 

Layer Raisins 162 

Sweating and Equalizing; Packing Layers, Top-up Method; Packing Layers, 

Top-down Method ; Filling ; Nailing and Trimming ; Labels. 

STATISTICS OF IMPORTATION, PRODUCTION AND PRICES 169 

Production of Raisins in California from 1873 to 1S89; Number of Acres in Raisin 

Grapes in California in 1890; California and Malaga Prices, Importation, etc., from 
1871 to 1889 ; Exports of Malaga Raisins from 1864 to 1889 ; Exports of Valencia 
Raisins from 1850 to 1889 ; First Cost of Crop of Valencia Raisins ; Production 
and Distribution of Smyrna Raisins from 1S44 to 18^-4 ; World's Raisin Produc- 
tion in 1890 ; Importation of Raisins, Currants and Figs into the United States 
from 1873 to 1878 ; Importation of Raisins, Currants and Figs into the United 
States from 1879 to 1888 ; Consumption of Currants and Raisins per Head of 
Total Population in 1884 ; Prices Ruling in the California Raisin Districts. 

THROUGH THE CALIFORNIA RAISIN DISTRICTS 181 

Through San Joaquin Valley to Fresno 181 

From Los Angeles to Santa Ana 189 

From Santa Ana to San Diego 192 

ElCajon I95 

Riverside ^99 

Redlands 202 

An Hour in a Packing-house 205 

RAISIN-GROWERS AND THEIR VINEYARDS 208 

G. G. Briggs ; R. B. Blowers ; Robert McPherson ; T. C. White ; Miss M. F. .Austin ; 

Joseph T. Goodman; A. B. Butler; William Forsyth; A. D. Barling; San 
Joaquin Valley Raisin Packers of 18S9. 

LITERATURE 215 

Introductory ; List of Books of Reference. 

GENERAL INDEX 219 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 



A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE RAISIN GRAPES, 

THEIR HISTORY, CULTURE AND CURING, WITH 

SPECIAL REFERENCE TO CALIFORNIA, 

BY GUSTAV EISEN. 



Copyrighted. 



HISTORICAL. 



RAISINS. 



The word '^ raisin,'^ as spelled and pronounced to-day, is not of 
very ancient origin, but rather a corruption and evolution of older 
words, both spelled and pronounced diflferently. Thus Falstaff replies 
to Prince Hal: "If reasons were as plentiful as blackberries, I would 
give no man a reason upon compulsion " (Henry IV, Act II, scene 4). 
Also, Cooper, in his dictionary of 1685, indicates that ^'raisin" and 
^'■reason'" are of identical sounds. The derivation of the word has, 
again, been very variously suggested either from "red" or "rose" 
color, connecting it with the German and Danish word " rosme\ " and 
it has even been suggested that the word was derived from the fact 
that the raisins were cured in the " rays " of the sun. The true deri- 
vation, however, is from the Latin word " racemus," meaning a bunch 
or cluster. Richardson, who first points out this derivation, quotes : 
"Whether a reisyn (E. V. graap, racemus) of Effraym is not better 
than the vindages of Abiezer " (WiclifFe Judges VIIJ, 2). "And there 
shall be left in it as a rasyn " (E. V., braunches of a cluster). Margi- 
nal note, "A rasyn is a 15'til bow with a lytil fruit" (Idem, Is., XVIJ-, 
6). But we have much older testimony of this derivation being the 
correct one. An old document states that, in 1265 a. d., the Countess 
of Leicester paid in London twelve shillings for fourteen pounds, or, 
as the statement reads in Latin, ''Pro tino fraello racemorum; " which, 
translated, would be, "for one frail of bunches." The evolution of 
the Latin word racemus was thus seen to have been accomplished rap- 
idly enough ; but, on account of the illiteracy of the olden times, it 
was spelled and pronounced promiscuously. Thus we meet with such 
spellings as "rrj/^j/;z^," in 1266; '^ reyso7is,'' \\x 1447 (" Russell's Book 
of Nurture"). In 1554 the Stationers' Compa^iy in London paid two- 
pence for one pound of " greate reasons;'' while Andrew Borde, in 
his " Dietary " of 1542, says that ''great raysens be mitrytyve, specyally 
yf the stones be pulled out." In 1578 Dodoens speaks of dried raysens. 
In 1685 the word "raisin" is used and spelled as in our days, and 



6 THE RAISIN INDUJ5TRY. 

from that time on the different .spellings were used, if not promiscu- 
ously, still without any great uniformity. The term of " greate ray- 
sens" was introduced to distinguish them from the smaller raisins, or 
currants. In our own days, the latter is seldom classed or alluded to 
as a "raisin " proper, although it, strictl)' speaking, should be consid- 
ered as such. The tendency at present in California is to make the 
distinction between "raisins" and "dried grapes," meaning by the 
former certain varieties of grapes which have been skillfully dried and 
cured, and which are superior in taste, flavor, thinness of .skin and 
saccharine matter. "Dried grapes," again, are simply any kind of 
grape, especially wine-grapes, which have only been dried, and 
which have not undergone that .skillful treatment which the grape- 
grower is so proud of, and justly enough designates as "curing." 
They are an outgrowth from the late eflforts of the French wine mer- 
chants to make genuine French wine out of anything that is sweet, 
and as they are immensely preferable to beets, potatoes and glucose, 
they will always be in demand. 

With the above definition of the "raisin " accepted, we can pro- 
ceed to consider their different varieties, their names and deriva- 
tions. The old designations of the different varieties were derived from 
the places where they were produced, without special reference to the 
grapes from which the raisins were made. Thus we had Malagas, Cur- 
rants, Valencias, Denias, Turkish and Italian raisins. But since it has 
been found that the same kinds of raisins have been produced in very 
different localities, and that some localities can produce all the different 
kinds, a new division has been found necessary. Thus, disregarding 
the many various brands with which this and other markets are flooded, 
the following different varieties of raisins will be found the principal 
ones: Curra7iis, Muscatels, Dipped and Sultana. 

THE CURRANT. 

The airrant is one of the very oldest raisins known. As early 
as 75 A. D. Pliny speaks of the fine grapes grown in Greece, the 
berry being thin-.skinned, juicy and sweet, and the bunch being 
exceedingl}' small. This, then, must be the currant of later times. 
After this first mention of this grape, the same drops out of history 
for ten centuries, and the name currant is first to be identified with 
raisins de Corauntz, or rather, " reysyns de Coratinizs'^ as late as 
1334. As early as the eleventh century, a lively traffic in this kind 
of raisins had taken place between the Greek producers, the Veni- 
tians and other of the Mediterranean merchant nations. In 1334 we 
find them called "corauntz;" in 1435, "corent;" and old MS. of the 
Grocers' Company in lyondon, .speaks of " x butts and vi roundel- 
letts of resins of Corent." Thus .spelled, the name was used for 
years. In 1463 " reysoays of Corawnce " were three pence per pound, 
and in 151 2 the Duke of Northumberland paid two pence per pound 
for rasyns of Corens. In 1554 the name had changed to currans, 
and the Stationers' Company provided for a banquet ' ' 5 punde of currans 
at one shilling and eight pence." In 1558 the same company pro- 
vided for " 6 punde of currance for 2 shillings." In 1578 we find in 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 7 

L,ytes' translation of Dodoen's "Herbal," in the description of dif- 
ferent varieties of vines, that "Small raysens, commonly called 
Corantes, but more rightly raysens of Corintbe. The fruit is called 
in the shoppes of the countrie,* passulae de Corinthe; in French, 
raisins de Corinthe; in base Alraaigne (Dutch) Corinthea; in English, 
Currantes, and small raysens of Corynthe." Here, then, is indicated 
for the first time that the true and correct name should be ' ' raisins of 
Corinth." But we need not follow this evolution any longer; there 
can be no possible doubt that the name currajit, the one now 
accepted for this class of raisins, is derived from the town of Corinth, 
oa the mainland of Greece, — the Morea of our days, the Pelopon- 
nesus of the ancients. Until the time when the Turks conquered 
Greece, the port of Corinth was the principal point of export for this 
class of raisins, and while, after the subjection of Greece this com- 
merce entirely ceased, still this fruit always continued to bear the 
name by which it first became known to commerce. 

MUSCATELS. 

The principal and most valued class of raisins are the Muscatels 
or Muscats. They all derive their name from the Muscatel or Muscat 
grape, from which these raisins are made. As to the origin of the 
name Muscat, opinions differ. The most popular one is that the grape 
got its name from the supposed musky flavor peculiar to this variety of 
grape. It is, however, far more likely that the name is a very ancient 
one, and derived from the Latin word i^/z^5ca, meaning a fly, — these fine 
grapes when drying being especially attractive to flies. The Romans 
called this grape, " Uva Apiaria," meaning bee grapes, or grapes 
beloved by bees, from the fact that the bees are especially attracted to 
these grapes when they are being dried. The Muscat or Muscatel 
would then not originally designate a certain variety of grapes, but 
grapes used for dr^dng generally. In the course of time the name was 
transferred to or especially given to the best giape for drying purposes, 
— the Muscatel of our own J;imes. 

DEHESA RAISINS. 

The finest or at least the most expensive brand of raisins made is 
the Dehesa raisin of Malaga. They are produced from the Muscatel 
variety and the name the)'' bear has an interesting origin, giving us at 
the same time an insight in the development of the agricultural and hor- 
ticultural resources of Spain. The word ' ' Dehesa ' ' is found by reference 
to a good Spanish dictionary to mean pasture ground. The " Dehesa" 
raisins then are pasture-ground raisins, or raisins grown on former 
pasture ground. The way the raisins came to be given such a name is 
as follows. Between the years 800 and the end of the fifteenth century, 
the fairest part of Spain as well as Portugal was occupied by the Moors. 
Contrary to their nature in other countries, they proved here extremely 
industrious, and excelled both as merchants, artisans and agricultu- 
rists. The waters of the streams were conducted to the land in 

* Holland, Dodoens was a learned Dutch botanisL 



8 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

aqueducts, dams were thrown across the rivers, reservoirs were 
formed, and the whole of Southern Spain became most highly culti- 
vated, rich and prosperous. In fact, if the historians are to be believed, 
and the yet remaining views of former grandeur can be trusted, no 
country either in ancient or modern times has ever in prosperity rivaled 
the ancient Moorish kingdoms of Granada and Andalusia. In the 
thirteenth century the christian knights and kings of Central and 
Northern Spain succeeded in conquering the Moors, who again were 
unmercifully expelled, massacred or enslaved, their cities burned and 
razed, and the fertile and cultivated districts utterly ruined. Vast 
tracts were depopulated and abandoned, and, nature taking its 
course, wild grass, shrubbery and trees soon covered the former highly 
cultivated plains. In the course of time these uncultivated lands 
attracted the attention of the highland shepherds, who drove their herds 
to them during the winters, again returning to the mountains at the 
advent of the dry season. 

By degrees the self-taken rights of the sheepmen became more 
widely recognized, and, while the less valuable lands were taken pos- 
session of by the poorer peasantry, these pasture lands were set apart for 
the exclusive use of the sheep-owners. The pasture lands thus being 
free, it was no wonder that the sheep industry flourished, and that the 
flocks increased. The wool industry soon became one of the most 
important in Spain. The flocks were principally owned by nobles and 
monks, and the poor peasants, who constituted the only agricultural 
population, had very little if any chance to oppose the ever greater 
encroachments of the wandering flocks or their insolent owners. The 
Merinos, or moving sheep, were wintered in the warm valleys of 
Andalusia, Murcia and Estremadura, only to be again removed to the 
cooler mountains of I^eon and Castille at the advent of spring. What 
curse this would entail on the agricultural population is easy to be 
seen. The sheep were moving in bands of 10,000 each, and 700 to 
800 such flocks were moved annually twice through a country devoid 
of fences or inclosures of any kind. Numerous disputes and constant 
bloody fights arose between farmers and the shepherd, to settle which 
the "Council of the Mesta" was instituted. In tyranny, this 
dreaded institution was only equaled by the famous Inquisition, with 
which in birth and death it was almost contemporaneous. In the year 
1556 a code of laws was promulgated, and a compromise was entered 
upon. But the tyranny of the shepherds, upheld through their 
" Mesta," was in no way diminished. The latter continually extended 
its power, encroached upon new territory, appropriating gradually the 
finest pastures of Spain, and finally obtained a monopoly of the wool 
trade. Its tyranny became at last intolerable. The shepherds of the 
Mesta were more dreaded than robbers and highwaymen in every place 
througn which they passed. Agriculture became almost impossible. 
At last the " Mesta" was abolished by the Cortez in Cadiz in 1S12, 
and a few years aftervvards the pastures or Dehesas were sold. One of 
the finest Dehesas near Velez, Malaga, was planted to Muscatel grapes, 
and through the combined fertility of the soil, and the abun- 
dance of moisture, the vineyard proved a great success. So fine 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 9 

were the grapes grown there that they attracted great attention; 
no such fine grapes had ever been seen in Andalusia before. The 
merchants to whom the first raisins were sold were much aston- 
ished, and wonderingly asked whence they came. The reply, "from 
the Dehesa," was from that time on applied to the finest Muscatel 
grapes. 

LEXIAS, OR I^YE-DIPPED, AND OTHER RAISINS. 

The third class of raisins are the dipped raisins, so called from 
being dipped in boiling lye before being dried and cured. The Span- 
ish name for these raisins is Lexias. The name Lexia is, again, derived 
from a more ancient word, the Latin lixivium, or lixia, meaning* lye. 
To-day the continental name for this class of raisin is Lexias, when 
the more specific names of Denias and Valencias are not used. Here, in 
America, we generally use these names, and whenever we speak of 
Valencias and Denias we mean the dipped raisins of these districts. 
To the above three classes of raisins we might appropriately add 
Sultanas and Malagas. The Sultanas are made from the Sultana 
grape, a seedless grape from Asia Minor, now grown in many Mediter- 
ranean countries, as well as here in California. The Malagas, again, 
were originally the Muscatels grown around Malaga, in Spain; but 
of late this name is being, with considerable confusion, applied to a 
coarser raisin made in California from a grape here called, for want 
of a better name, the Malaga grape. 

Among names which were formerly much used, but which have 
gone out of use, was the Solis, or sun-dried raisins, especially the 
sun-dried Muscatels of Malaga. As early as 1295 A. d., the Muscatels 
were generally called thus: Raisins of the sun; Solis, or sun-dried, so 
as to distinguish them from the inferior dipped, or Lexias. In our 
own time, this name was nearly being revived, when a couple of years 
ago our California sun-dried raisins were spoken of in opposition to our 
machine-d}ied raisins, and when both classes had their earnest and 
enthusiastic champions. 

We cannot leave this chapter on names without referring to classes 
of raisins receiving their names from certain localities. Of course, the 
number of such names may be almost endless. It is, however, only 
of interest to refer to the principal ones, such as have been known 
to commerce in former days or are yet known. Thus, we designate as 
Malagas any of the raisins grown and shipped from Malaga. The 
Smyrnas (formerly Smirna) are those from Smyrna, in Asia Minor, 
both sun-dried and dipped raisins; the Alicantes, dipped raisins, from 
Alicante, in Spain; the Denias, dipped raisins from Denia, in Spain; 
the Valencias, dipped raisins from Valencia (include Denias); the 
Lipari, raisins from the Island of Lipari, near Sicily; the Bel- 
videres, from the same island and from the Island of Pantellaria; 
the Calabrian raisins, from Calabria, in Italy; the Faro raisins, from 
the port of Faro, in Algarve, Portugal. We have above already 
referred to the currants, from the town of Corinth and the Grecian 
Islands, and the Malagas, from Malaga. The latter were also known 
as "great raisins," on account of their superior quality. Among the 



10 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

latter we should, of course, count the California raisins; but, unfortu- 
nately, our raisin-growers have not until quite recently recognized the 
necessity of adopting names which should at once show the locality 
where the raisins are produced. But we will return to this further on. 

VARIOUS KINDS OF RAISINS. 

a. Sun-dried raisins. 

1. Muscatels, or Muscats, from Malaga or California. The former, 
also known at various periods as "Solis," or sun-dried, or " great rai- 
sins," on account of their very superior qualities. 

2. Czirraiiis, raisins made of the small currant grape, originally 
from Corinth. 

3. Behideres, raisins from Calabria, in Italy, and from the Islands of 
I/ipari and Pantallaria, near Sicily. 

4. Black Smyrna, properly only a dried grape, not exported t6 this 
country. 

5. California Malagas, made from the Malaga grape. 

6. California sun-dried Sultanas, made from the Sultana grapes in 
this State. And, lastly, — 

7. Seedless Muscatels, made in California, and being the smallest 
Muscats separated from the larger seed-bearing berries. 

8. Thotnpson Seedless, a new, very promising raisin now being 
produced in this country from vines imported originally from Constan- 
tinople, producing seedless grapes, slightly larger than the Sultanas. 

9. Dried grapes of any description, especially wine grapes, exported 
from this and Mediterranean countries for wine-making to France, 
England and the Eastern States. 

b. Dipped raisins. 

10. Lexias, or Dipped Muscatels, from Denia, Valencia, Alicante, 
in Spain. 

11. California Dipped, especially second-crop Muscatels. Proper 
name not yet established. 

12. Smyrnas, which again may be either Sultanas, Chesmes or 
Elenies. The first from the Sultana grape, the two latter, the ' ' red ' ' 
grapes, from Dipped Muscatels. 

13. Faros, from Algarve, in Portugal, not known in this country. 

c. Dried in the shade. 

14. Huasco raisin, from Chile. To this list might be added many 
more varieties of less importance. 

RAISIN DISTRICTS. 



FOREIGN DISTRICTS. 



RAISINS IN ANCIENT TIMES. 

Previous to the production of raisins in California within the last 
twenty years, the raisin industry of the world was entirely confined to 
the Mediterranean district of Europe and Asia. At that period, however, 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 11 

raisin grapes became more disseminated, and raisins were produced to 
begin with in small quantities in widely distant countries, such as 
Chile, Australia and California. By virtue of their climatic conditions, 
the Mediterranean countries were the only parts of Europe where 
raisin culture could be successfully carried on, though it is almost 
certain that the original home of the raisin grapes must be looked for 
elsewhere. In searching for the original habitat for the ancient varie- 
ties of raisin grapes, we must look further east to ancient Persia, or 
to the tablelands of Western Asia generally. In remotest antiquity, 
grape culture was carried on there, and in the ancient records of 
travelers in those countries we find mentioned dried and seedless 
grapes. We can trace the origin of two varieties of raisin grapes to the 
beginning of our era, which must then already have attained perfection. 
As has been mentioned before, Pliny spoke of a small, sweet and 
remarkable grape grown by the Greeks, evidently the "currant;" 
he also mentions Uva Zibebae and Uva Alexcmdria. 

The Latins generally spoke of Uvae Apiariae or Uvae Muscae, our 
present Muscatels or dried grapes generally. This carries us back 
fully nineteen centuries. But we may well believe, even in want of 
records, that the drying of grapes was practiced centuries before. 

MODERN RAISIN DISTRICTS. 

LeavingTemote antiquity, it was only in the Mediterranean basin, 
and in comparatively modern times, that the drying of grapes developed 
to an important industry, and in more recent times yet that grapes 
were exported to Northern Europe. While thus the industry is old, 
it was not until the eleventh century, at the time of the Crusades, that 
it became important. The returning knights brought with them 
•taste for and acquaintance with the products of the East. Northern 
Europe became the consumers of raisins, regarding them as the 
greatest luxuries, only to be afforded by the rich. It has been reserved 
for our time to make the raisin a necessity even in humbler homes. 
The perfection to which the raisin industry has attained is of modern 
origin not yet half a century old. 

The raisin districts of the world are not large, and while for 
centuries every effort was made to extend the planting of raisin grapes 
and their curing into raisins, few of these efforts have been crowned 
with success. While raisin grapes may grow and be turned into 
raisins in almost every part of the Mediterranean basin, experience 
has demonstrated that it has only proved a paying business in 
comparatively few localities. The reasons of this are not fully 
apparent; but they are evidently dependent both upon climatic condi- 
tions and upon the capability of the natives to learn and profit by the 
experiences of others, and upon their enterprise in venturing upon a 
new industr3\ On the other hand, it is not likely that, even with 
extensive experiments and with the aid of large capital, the growing 
and curing of the raisin grapes could be very extensively extended. 
The question there as well as here is not one alone of agricultural 
consideration, but a financial problem dependent upon the labor 
supply, the facilities for shipping, climatic conditions during the curing 



12 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

season, etc. Such being the case, all the more interest is attached to 
those localities and districts where the raisin industry flourishes, and 
where there is every probability that it will remain a success. 

THE MALAGA DISTRICT. 

Extent and Age of the District.— MsldLgo. has been known to 
export raisins since 1295 a. d., but must have been a raisin-producing 
district centuries before. The raisin cult, then, is no doubt of 
Phoenician origin, and has been practiced in the same locality for two 
thousand years or more. Under the Romans the raisin industry 
was continued, but appears to have deteriorated and later on to 
have been abandoned altogether, as the local tradition credits the 
Moors with having re-introduced the raisin grape into Velez Malaga. 
The raisin district of Malaga extends along the southern coast of 
Spain for a distance of sixty or seventy miles. The district is subdi- 
vided into several other districts. Thus, the subdistrict of Malaga 
proper occupies a plain -eighteen miles long by nine miles wide, in the 
northeast corner of which is situated the town of Malaga. 

The best part of the whole district is, however, found at Velez 
Malaga, situated northeast of Malaga proper. It was here the raisin 
grape was first planted by the Romans or Phoenicians, and it was here 
also the devastating phylloxera first made its appearance. The raisin 
vineyards extend here not over a vega or plain, but occupy the fer- 
tile country along the coast or the litoral towards Malaga proper. 

Beyond Velez Malaga to Algaroba, the Muscatel grape is of infe- 
rior quality, and is greatly superseded by the red Muscats, principally 
exported to France. 

Another district is Marbclla, on the coast, and in the interior we 
find Ronda and Albunol. Of the principal towns in these districts, the 
population of Malaga is 120,000, that of Velez Malaga 24,000, of Mar- 
bella 7,700, and of Ronda 19,000. 

Climate. — The. climate of Malaga is the very mildest. Frost is 
almost unknown, and is never heavy. The average temperature of 
Malaga during the winter months of November to January is 56 degrees 
Fahrenheit, while that of Pau in France is 41, and that of Nice 47. 
Malaga is well sheltered on the north and east by mountains, but is open 
to the south. It is the most equitable climate of Europe, although the 
winds are sometimes trying. The summer is v^ery tempered. The air 
is, however, moist, and fog, while rare, is not entirely absent. Rain 
sometimes falls during the growing season of the grapes, and quite 
frequently during the drying season. But the fog is warm and not 
specially injurious to the grapes, the latter often growing within reach 
of the spray on the seashore. 

Soil. — The soil of the Malaga vineyards varies considerably, the 
best being a reddish clayey loam with much sand and gravel. But we 
have also other varieties of soil, sucii as the white ash, gray alluvial 
soils, and the very sandy loam on the hills. 

Location of the Vineyards. — In former years, the vineyards were 
principally located on the hillsides, only occasionally extending to 
the level plains. Of late, however, the hillside vineyards have 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 13 

suffered from the phylloxera and various other diseases, and many 
of them have been dug up. The lowland vinej'ards are now the 
best, although even they are, by far, not free from disease. Few 
of the vineyards are located on entirely level ground, there being 
but little such in the district. The nature of the country is rolling, 
with small valleys or flats. The raisin grapes grow apparently well 
both inland and on the coast. According to Consul Marston, about 
eighty per cent of the vineyards are situated on rolling land, ten per 
cent on lowland and ten per cent on the very coast. The vineyards on 
the coast are actually within reach of the spray. 

The vineyards are generally small, none being over eighty acres 
in extent. Most contain, perhaps, from three to four acres each; 
while from twenty to forty acres is considered a good-sized vineyard. 

Varieties of Grapes. — The principal variety used is the Gordo 
Blanco or Muscatel. It is identical with the grape known by us under 
that name, and which was imported to us from Malaga. But several 
types are found, although none superior to the Gordo Blanco. 

Characteristics of the Raisi7is. — The Malaga raisins were, until 
lately, the finest raisins in the world, and for the present have only 
the California raisins to compete with. They are characterized by 
great sweetness, deep bluish color, great size and by good keeping 
qualities. The best raisins are those called Dehesas, being produced 
on the valley lands of the districts. 

Yield of Grapes. — The yield of Malaga vineyards varies of course. 
The best yield eight or nine tons of grapes to the acre, — just like those 
of California. But there is a great difference between new and old 
vineyards. In many vineyards where formerly the yield was nine tons, 
the soil has been so exhausted by continuous croppings that to-day, 
even with manuring, two or three tons of grapes must be considered a 
high yield. 

Distances of the Vines. — ^The older vineyards had their vines set 
seven feet by seven feet, but of late the vines are planted generally 
eight feet by four feet, thus much closer than by us in California. 

Pruni7ig. — The pruning of the vineyard is performed very much 
as in California. Formerly the soil had to be removed from the 
vines before they could be pruned; now this is not necessary except 
while the vines are very young. The various branches are pruned 
back to a few inches, with two eyes each, while the heads are elevated 
only a few inches above the ground. 

Manuring and Fertilizing. — The Malaga vineyardist fully under- 
stands the value of manuring his vineyards, and uses for this purpose 
not only all fertilizers available at home, but also imports directly from 
distant countries. The most valued fertilizers are the Mexican and 
Chilean guanos or phosphates. The Mexican phosphate costs in 
Malaga sixty-five dollars per ton; still it is used by all the principal 
vineyardists, who know the value of fertilizers. In fact, concentrated 
fertilizers are a necessity to the Malaga vineyards; without them they 
could not be cropped. Even the most virgin soil is exhausted in ten 
years' time by constant croppings of raisin grapes; no paying crops 
could be expected if fertilizers were not used yearly. This fertilizing 



14 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

of the soil is, however, of recent origin, and fifty years ago was almost 
unknown. 

When home manures are used, it is placed in holes dug round 
the roots of the vines, which, after exposure to the air for several 
months, are again filled up at the advent of spring, generally in March, 
before the vines start to bud. 

Drying-floors, or Seqiieros. — The raisins, when picked, are dried 
on so-called sequeros, or drying-floors, characteristic of the Malaga 
district. These floors are of different sizes and lengths in different 
vineyards, but everywhere constructed on the same general principles. 
Where an incline or a hill is found, the floor may simply be built 
on the slope, with no artificial elevation; but, where the ground is 
level, the structure of the seqiiero is different. The floor must 
always face the south, and the back is raised to give the floor 
the proper slope. The sequero thus consists of four walls, the front 
one of which is only a foot high, and the back wall from six to 
eight feet high. The side walls slope between these, generally with 
an angle of forty-five degrees. In length, these floors vary from forty 
to fifty feet, according to the different ideas of the vineyardists. The 
whole interior is filled with black gravel, and is tamped hard. These 
sequeros are divided in beds, fourteen feet or so wide, by tiles that are 
sunk, thus forming walks of several feet in width, and which also ser\'e 
for leading off the rainwater. Around every little bed of this kind are 
small upright tiles to prevent the rainwater entering from the walks. 
Finally, in the center of the bed, is a long row of upright tiles, high 
enough to support either boards, mats, or more generally canvas, in 
order that they may shed the rain into the tile walks. The value of 
such floors is evident. Being covered with canvas, etc. , every night, 
the heat is preserved, and every morning, when the sun rises, the 
grapes are yet warm. The drying on such beds has never, 
in fact, been interrupted. The drying-floors are also useful in case of 
too hot weather, when the grapes can be properly sheltered with canvas 
and prevented from being cooked; when finally dried, the cover- 
ing, again, will serve to keep the moisture from too quickly evapo- 
rating. 

Drying and Curing. — When the grapes are picked, the best 
vineyardists separate the bunches immediately in three different 
grades. Each grade is placed by itself on the gravelly drying-ground, 
and remains there to dry. When half dried, they are taken bunch 
by bunch by a workman, who picks out bad or overdried berries and 
rubbish, and in putting the bunch back turns it over. In ten days 
the grapes are generally dried, provided the weather has been favor- 
able. Every night the canvas covering is slid down over the sequero, 
and the grapes protected from dew and cold, or rain. The drying is 
sometimes greatly hastened by the Terral or hot winds blowing from 
the plains of La Mancha, a wind very similar in its effect to the desert 
wind of Riverside and Santa Ana, in California. 

Packing. — The raisins in Malaga are packed by the large growers 
themselves, and every such grower packs almost to a man. The gener- 
ally accepted idea that a few packers living in Malaga pack all the raisins 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 15 

is erroneous. This is not the case.* Nearly all packers there are also 
growers owning their own vineyards. The raisins are all packed in 22- 
pound boxes or in quarters, etc., according to the demands of the trade. 

The various raisin brands packed in Malaga are different according 
to the different markets that are to be supplied. Thus for England we 
have: Finest Dehesa, three crown; finest Dehesa, two crown; finest 
Dehesa, one crown; Dehesa; Choice layers; London layers, three 
crown; London layers, two crown; London layers, one crown. 

For France again we have: i Imperiaux; i Royaux; Couches; 
Surchoix; Choix; Ordinaire; Surcouches, etc. 

The loose raisins or Brena and the seedless or Esconibro generally 
go to the continent or even to the United States. The old terms 
Garoonor Sun are now never used. 

For American markets we have: Imperial Dehesa; Royal finest 
Dehesa; finest Dehesa; fine Dehesa; Dehesa; London layers, three 
crown; London layers, two crown; London loose, one, two and three 
crown. 

Boxes are generally made from fir imported from Portugal, at fifteen 
cents each. Of late years, however, they are also received from Canada, 
and cost only seven cents each. 

Labor. — The labor in Malaga is the most expensive in Spain, the 
best laborer being paid forty cents per day, while in Denia the labor 
is obtained for fifteen cents only; but it must be remembered that the 
packing of the Malaga raisins is a much more particular work than 
the packing of the dipped Denias. 

The price paid for Malaga raisins at the packing-house is at an 
average of seven cents per pound for the best, or from one to two cents 
more than what is paid in California. The lower grades bring from 
two and a half cents upwards. 

VALENCIA AND DENIA. 

Extent of the Districts. — The Valencia raisins, or, as they are called, 
the Lexias or Spanish dipped raisins, are produced in the province of 
Valencia, situated on the east coast of Spain. The district contains 
three sub-districts, the southern one, the Alicante district, extending 
from Villa Joyosa in the north to Elche in the south. The raisins of 
the Alicante district are inferior to those produced in the other dis- 
tricts, both as regards quality and quantity. The most northerly 
district is the Valencia district proper, extending from Cullera in the 
south to Castellon in the north. North of the latter place the Muscat 
grape does not come to perfection, and even within this district com- 
paratively few raisins are now produced as compared with a few years 
ago. But the bulk of all the raisins produced in the province are 
exported from Valencia city, and hence these raisins are known as 
Velencias, while in reality they come principally from Denia. 

The bulk of the Valencia raisins come from the central district, or 
the Denia sub-district, comprising the land between Villa Joyosa in 
the south and Cullera in the north, or about thirty miles on each side 
of the town of Denia. Towards the interior the raisin district extends 

* Accordinsr to A. B. Butler. 



*/ 



16 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

at the most nine miles, but the a\'^rage is less, so that the whole 
district over which the Denia vineyards are spread includes only an 
area of 350 square miles, equal to ten townships of land, or about 
224,000 acres. A large part of this land is not cultivated, and consists 
of mountains and waste places only suitable as watersheds. The town 
of Denia is the principal town of the sub-district, and has now a popu- 
lation of about 2,600 people. It is situated about half way between 
Valencia in the north and Alicante in the south, on the shore of the 
Mediterranean, in about the latitude of Sacramento in California, or 
thirty-eight degrees, fifty minutes north. Being one of the oldest 
towns in Spain, Denia was first founded by the Phoenicians, who here 
established the worship of Diana, from which word the name Denia is 
a corruption. The Phoenicians also introduced the grapes, and possibly 
also the drying of raisins; but the local tradition gives the honor of 
the latter industry to the Moors, who are said to have brought with 
them the variety of grape known as the Muscat of Alexandria. 
During a part of the year, Denia is the export harbor for the raisins of 
the district. This is only possible in the early part of the raisin sea- 
son, as then only are the winds favorable, — the so-called harbor being 
nothing but a roadstead. Later in the season, when storms and rains 
set in, all the raisins are shipped to Valencia by railroad, and from 
there exported by steamers and sailing vessels. 

Among other industries of the Denia district are the cultivation of 
onions, the manufacture of cotton goods, its sardine fisheries, etc., all 
giving work to the vineyard workers during a time 9f the year when 
there is nothing or but little to do in the vineyards and packing- 
houses. 

The raisins of Denia are not all of the same quality, but vary accord- 
ing to the locality where grown. The whole district is dotted with 
small villages, all producing raisins. The principal ones of these are, 
besides Denia proper, Jabea, Jaraco, Jerrea, Oliva, Pedreguer, Jalon, 
Gandia, Ondara, Vergel, etc. Of these, Denia proper produced in 
1876 over 2,500 tons of raisins, Jabea 1,700 tons, Oliva 1,600 tons, 
Pedreguer 1,000 tons, Retoria 900 tons, Jalon 850 tons, Ondara and 
Benisa 800 tons each. But, besides these, there are some twenty odd 
more villages or smaller raisin centers, which produce from 200 to 700 
tons each, or an aggregate of 20,000 tons of raisins. 

Soils and Appearajice of the Districts. — The soils of the province of 
Valencia, where the vineyards are situated, are of various kinds, such 
as cretaceous and calcareous soils, containing admixtures of clay, sand 
and gravel. The color is often red, changing to gray where irrigation 
has been practiced, but much of the soil is of an ashy white color, 
similar to that of bottom lands generally. In many of the lower 
situated plains, the soils are blackish or dark gray, especially so where 
stable or other manures have been used for years. 

Many vineyards are situated on the hillsides or on the rolling lands, 
where the gravelly soils produce raisins of smaller size and in less 
quantity, but sweeter and finer flavored. But the largest bulk of the 
vineyards are on comparatively level land, which can be and which is 
irrigated. The raisins produced on these low groimds in the moist and 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 17 

cool valleys are larger, but not of equal flavor and sweetness. In wet 
seasons, the hillsides are preferred, the valley lands then being too wet 
and cold. Accordingly, as the seasons are wet and cold, or dry and 
warm, the various localities produce raisins of different qualities, which 
again are vahied and paid for differently. The extent of the valley or 
plain lands decides the extent of the raisin districts, and of late years 
the rolling vineyards have decreased in quantity, while those on the 
plains have increased, until at the present time almost all the plain 
lands are occupied with raisin vineyards, especially in the Denia sub- 
district. 

Climate. — The climate of Denia and its surroundings is rather cold 
and windy; damaging spring frosts, as well as early fall rains, fre- 
quently interfere with the setting of the grapes and with the harvest- 
ing of the crop; it has even happened several times that the entire 
crop has been seriously injured by one of these, or by both causes 
combined. Farther north, or in the Valencia district proper, the 
climate is milder, and frost is rare. Oranges are here at home, while 
the culture of raisin grapes becomes less every year. North of Castel- 
lon the climatic conditions are such that no raisin culture is possible. 

As compared with the climate of Malaga, that of Denia is much less 
favorable to the raisin grape. The production of sun-dried and 
undipped raisins in Denia is not possible, and, although it has been 
attempted several times, it has seldom succeeded. The rainfjll of 
Denia averages twelve inches per year. The rainiest months are those 
of November, February and April, but the heaviest rainfall at one 
time occurs quite frequently in the first week of September, while 
light showers are not uncommon in August, at that time doing much 
damage to the grapes or the just exposed raisins. 

Irrigation. — Not only is irrigation necessary to grow the vines suc- 
cessfully and to produce an abundance of grapes, but the irrigation 
in the province of Valencia is necessary to the health and longevity of 
the vines. Nowhere else in Spain is the water so abundant, and no 
saving of the water is necessary in the majority of the districts. 
Through an abundance of water, the soil on the lowlands has now 
filled up to such an extent, that in the best vineyards the surface 
water is only from five to eight feet from the surface of the ground. 
Those vines which could not be irrigated have gradually become dis- 
eased, and the hillside vineyards are being rapidly abandoned and 
devoted to something else. Upon the abundance and constancy of the 
water depends the prosperity of the whole province, and there is 
hardly a more prosperous country in Spain. To show the close con- 
nection between irrigation and raisin production in Spain, it will no 
doubt interest many to know something of the irrigation system 
and the irrigation districts of the province of Valencia, than which no 
more important ones are found in Spain. 

The district of Alicante is supplied with water from the river 
Monegre, and the Elche district from the river Minalapo. In the 
northern part of the province is the Murviado irrigation district, taking 
its water from the river Palencia. The Jucar irrigation district, situated 
immediately south of the huerta of Valencia, takes its water from the 



18 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY, 

Jucar river, distributing 850 cubic feet of water per second upon some 
50,000 acres of land. 

The Valencia irrigation district consists of 26,350 acres of land 
close to the town of Valencia, and is watered by the river Guadala- 
viar, or, as it is generally called, the Turia. The water is distributed 
through eight canals, each carrying from 35 to 120 cubic feet of 
water per second, the combined low-water discharge of all the canals 
being from 250 to 350 cubic feet of water per second. Of the import- 
ance of irrigation in this district, we can judge when we learn that the 
above 26,350 acres contain 72,000 inhabitants and sixty-two villages, 
or an average of 1,774 people per square mile, not including the city 
of Valencia itself, with a population of 120,000 people. It is also 
remarkable that this enormous population on a territory not as large as 
the arable land surrounding any one of our principal inland towns in 
California, is not alone due to the irrigation and care of the land, but 
to the minute subdivision of the land, which makes this culture and 
irrigation possible. It is a practical illustration of the value of the 
colony system as inaugurated in California, showing what we can 
expect of our inland plains when they become fully irrigated and the 
land properly subdivided. 

Quality of the Raisins. — It has already been stated that the grapes 
grown in Denia are the Muscat of Alexandria, which were introduced 
there by the Moors. Farther south, in the Alicante district, other 
varieties are more common, but play no important part in the raisin 
production of the district. The Valencia raisins are inferior to those 
of Malaga, the want of heat requiring them to be dipped in lye before 
drying. This, again, gives these raisins a peculiar reddish, semi-trans- 
parent color, which unfits them for table raisins. The Valencia raisins 
are principally used for cooking; even the best grades of Valencias 
are inferior to the inferior grades of Malaga raisins. During the last 
season (1889) large quantities of Denia grapes were cured on the 
Malaga style, and with great success. Large quantities of such sun- 
dried Denias were sent in bulk to Malaga, and there repacked for 
export to the United States, the Malaga crop having so diminished that 
the usual demand could not be supplied. Years in which such sun- 
drying is possible in Denia are rare. 

Planting and Ca?e. — The Muscat cuttings are planted generally in 
February. The best cuttings are considered to be those taken from 
vines at least six years old. The cuttings are set at various distances 
according to the richness of the soil. The richer the soil the less 
room is given the vines. Thus the vines are set either five by eleven 
feet or five by twelve feet, or, in other words, they are set in rows 
eleven or twelve feet apart, with the vines five feet apart in the row. 
The depth of the cutting is regulated by the moisture of the surface 
soil, but averages eighteen inches. The vines begin to bud in the 
middle of March, and are from the start subject to great care and con- 
stant cultivation. The first operation after the cutting is planted is to 
cut off the top bud as soon as the vine starts to grow, leaving the two 
shoots only from the two lower buds. No more shoots are allowed to 
grow the first year. Next winter the smaller of these two branches 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 19 

is cut ofiF completely and the remaining branch is pruned back to two 
eyes. In the second year the young shoots from the vine are allowed 
to grow to ten inches or so long, when all are cut away except two 
of the strongest. Next winter again these are pruned so to leave 
only two eyes on each, or four buds on the whole vine. In the suc- 
ceeding years the branches are gradually increased in number, but 
always pruned back to two eyes. After the vine is five years old, it 
is seldom increased as to branches; it is then always pruned back to 
the same number of spurs. It can be said that the Denia growers 
pay less attention to the quality of the raisins, and prune more to 
attain quantity. They leave more spurs on their vines than do those 
in Malaga, and in this respect resemble many of our own California 
growers, who frequently leave from twelve to fifteen spurs on a vine. 
The vines in Denia are also raised higher above the ground than in 
Malaga, very much as we have been in the habit of pruning our own 
vines. At the age of three years the vines come into bearing; but 
no fine raisins are made until the vines are five or six years old. 

Dipping and Scalding. — The dipping process is one of the greatest 
importance, and gives the peculiar characteristics to the Valencia or 
Denia raisins. As a similar process will sometime or other be more 
generally used in California, a more detailed description may prove 
interesting to California growers. We can probably not do better 
than to imitate them, although in mechanical "appliances we will 
readily improve upon their methods. The dipping is always done at 
the drying ground or secadero. The larger part of the dipping appa- 
ratus, or the kettles, are placed under the ground so as to save lieat 
and fuel. A trench eight or nine feet in length is dug to the depth of 
three or four feet. At one end is built a chimney protruding three or 
four feet above the level of the ground. In the other end of the 
trench is built a brick wall with an opening for feeding the fire. 
Some trenches are lined inside with bricks, making them more per- 
manent and solid. On the top of this flue, and on a level with the 
ground, are built the kettles or boilers, containing not less than twenty 
gallons each. The boiler nearest the fire entrance is destined to con- 
tain a solution of lye or ashes, the one next to the chimney being for 
boiling water only. 

The lye is made from the ashes of burnt vine cuttings, together with 
lime and sometimes some salt, by men who have acquired the art 
from years of experience, and who know by the appearance of the 
scalded grapes whether the solution is too strong or too weak. 
If too weak, the skins of the grapes will be insufficiently cut, which 
will delay the drying of the grapes, and cause them to rot if the 
weather is damp and foggy. If, again, the lye solution is too strong, 
the skin will be destroyed and the berries seriously injured. 

The grapes to be dipped should be perfectly ripe. If dipped before, 
they will become inferior both as to color and taste. The perfect 
ripeness is a most important point. The grapes are picked in baskets 
of about ten pounds each, and carried to the scalder. The man 
nearest him on the right fills a perforated ladle with about twenty 
pounds of the grapes. The ladle is made either of wire netting or of 



20 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

tin or zinc, with large perforated holes about three-eighths of an inch 
wide. There is a scalder at each boiler. The first scalder dips the 
grapes in the scalding water for a second, and immediately hands them 
to the second scalder, who dips the same ladle in the boiling lye 
solution for not over two seconds. The grapes are then carefully 
turned out on trays to dry. 

The dipping first in scalding water is of the greatest importance, 
both in washing off the dust of the grapes and in preparing them to 
receive the alkali wash with more effect. Since the hot-water process 
was introduced, the Valencia raisins have materially improved in 
quality. The grapes are never rinsed in cold water after being 
dipped, and it is more than likely that the lye prevents molding, as, 
according to A. B. Butler, dipped raisins are sometimes exposed to 
the rain for three weeks without being totally ruined. In California, 
our dipped and washed raisins spoil quickly if exposed to rain. The 
object of dipping is, of course, to slightly crack the skins so as to 
allow the water to readily evaporate. Dipped raisins dry sometimes 
in five days, while undipped raisins would require as many weeks. 
Efforts to produce sun-dried raisins without dipping them have 
repeatedly been made in Denia; but they are invariably spoiled by 
the rain, and lately two firms were ruined in their attempts to dispense 
with the dipping process. 

Drying and Cutting. — After the grapes have been properly dipped, 
the drying proceeds very quickly. The grapes are immediately spread 
on cane trays or caTiezos, about six feet long by three or four feet 
wide. These cane trays are made of the common Italian reed or 
Arundo donax, which grows everywhere, even in California, and is 
here incorrectly known as bamboo. The trays are made either of 
split or of entire canes tied strongly together. These traj^s are placed 
flat on the ground, only leaving enough space around each one to 
allow the workmen free access to the tray on all sides. After having 
been exposed to the sun for three days, the grapes are turned, in 
order to dry evenly on both sides. On the fifth day, the raisins are 
turned again, and, if the weather has been favorable, many of the 
raisins are then ready to pack. A day or two after this, all the 
raisins are ready, and are collected and housed. If, again, the 
weather has been unfavorable, the drying is very much delayed. At 
the approach of rain, the mats or trays are taken up and piled on 
the top of each other, under sheds previously made. Every drying 
ground has stationary appliances for this purpose. These simply 
consist of poles stuck in the ground, and extending five or six feet 
above the same. Other cross-rafters or scantlings are nailed between 
the poles, thus forming rows of roofless sheds eight or nine feet wide, 
of greater or shorter length. Painted canvas, or simply mats or empty 
reed trays, are used as covers, under which the raisin trays are piled. 
Under and between each tray are placed five little cubes of wood, for 
the purpose of lifting the tray and preventing it from pressing too 
heavily on the grapes underneath. 

Packing and Disposing of the Crop. — When at last the raisins are 
dried, they are either stored by the producer, or, as is more generally 




Views from Col. Wm. Forsyth's Raisin Vineyard, Near Fresno: Residence, Lake 
Raisin Dryer, Packing House. ' 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 21 

the case, are taken to the merchant or packer who has supplied the 
grower's wants during the year in anticipation of the coming crop. 
There are thus a number of special packers in Denia, who own large 
and splendid packing-houses in which the crop is yearly handled. The 
grower never packs himself, the enhanced value of the raisins not 
being sufi&cient to warrant the trouble. One of the best and by far 
the largest packing-houses in Denia is owned by J. D. Arquimbau. 
A more perfectly equipped establishment is not found anywhere else. 

All of the packing is done by women, while the men do the carting 
of the raisins from the vineyards to the packing-houses. During the 
balance of the year, when there is no more work in the packing-houses, 
these very men occupy themselves with the sardine fishery, while 
their wives then dress the sardines and pack them in oil. They have 
thus work all the year round, — an absolute necessity in a country 
where the wages are so small, and where the poor man has no chance 
to save up a capital. The wages paid for packing in Denia is only 
fifteen cents per day; while in Malaga the same work commands from 
forty to sixty cents per day. In some of the warehouses in Denia, 
from two to three hundred women are employed, as well as a number 
of men. The boxes now used are halves of twenty-eight pounds, or 
quarters of fourteen pounds each. The large or whole boxes of fifty- 
six pounds each are no longer in use. The raisins are all packed "off- 
stalk," or, as we say, "loose," Bunch or stem raisins, or " on-stalk " 
raisins, are seldom seen. This great improvement in packing is of 
recent origin, and is due entirely to the influence of English merchants. 
Some thirty years ago, the raisin industry of Valencia had so deterior- 
ated, that it threatened to entirely cease. The cause of the deteriora- 
tion was principally the habit of the buyers to pay for crops, not 
according to the quality of the raisins, but according to the quantity. 
The small farmer with a few hundred pounds of raisins carefully cured 
was paid less, or at least not any more, than the man who had hun- 
dreds of tons carelessly cured. As a consequence, it was to no one's 
interest to take any particular pains in curing. The raisins deterior- 
ated; no care was paid to packing; anything, almost, stalks, dirt and 
bruised berries were dumped in boxes together; brands, trade-marks 
and labels were unknown. The whole business was apparently going 
to ruin. The orders from England became less and less every year. 
Those from America almost ceased. The " equality price " or " aver- 
age price," which has been so much in vogue in California, actually 
ruined the Valencia raisin industry. We ought to take a lesson from 
them, and change this system in time, or we will be in the same bad fix 
as they were. 

The improvement in Valencia raisins was entirely due to the ener- 
getic efforts of English gentlemen. Mr. George Graham, agent for an 
English firm, established himself in Valencia, investigated the raisin 
business, and, seeing the true cause of the ruin, set himself to 
work to remedy the same. He introduced better methods in 
growing, curing and packing; and through his efforts a better 
price was paid for a better grade of raisins, and it was not 
long before the raisin business was on an entirely different footing. 



Ii2 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

The object of the grower was from that on, not only to increase 
the quantity, but to increase the quality as well. To begin with, the 
raisins were shipped oflf-stalk or loose; but the boxes were not faced. 
Now the raisin boxes are all faced, and the raisins are carefully 
selected and assorted. As a consequence, the Denia trade has of late 
years increased enormously, until at present all the land available has 
been planted to raisins. There is at present but little or no first-class 
raisin land left in Denia, and it looks as if the raisin production there 
could not be further expanded. 

Export and Production. — Although the raisin industry had long 
existed in the province of Valencia, it was only in late years that it 
assumed an importance. They were already known as Duracinae by 
the Romans. Re-introduced or improved by the Arabs or Moors, it 
soon became a prominent industry, and the export of raisins to Eng- 
land was already of some consequence in the time of William and 
Mary. In the year 1638, I^ewis Roberts, in his merchant map of 
commerce, infonns us that Denia raisins cost eighteen rials or three 
shillings per hundred weight. In 1664, Gandia raisins were quite 
famous, and were known as Pasas. At the end of the last century, 
the raisins from Denia and L^iria reached forty thousand quintals, or 
two thousand tons, distributed as follows: Spain, six thousand; France, 
six thousand; England, twenty-eight thousand, — equal to one million, 
four hundred and thirty thousand boxes, forty thousand quintals, or 
two thousand tons. In 1862, the raisin export from Valencia had 
dwindled down to seven thousand tons. In 1876, it had again risen 
to nineteen thousand tons, and in 1883 to forty thousand tons. Of 
these, nine hundred and seventy-nine thousand boxes were exported 
to the United States, one million, three hundred and eighty-five thou- 
sand were sent to England, and four hundred and thirt^^-six thousand 
found their way to other parts of Europe and Spain. In 188S, the yield 
was two million, three hundred and sixteen thousand boxes of twenty- 
eight pounds each, equal to thirty-two thousand, four hundred and 
twenty-four tons. If packed in twenty-pound boxes, this crop would 
have equaled three million, two hundred and forty thousand, four 
hundred boxes, or four times as much as California produced at the 
same time. The crop of 1889 is calculated to have reached two million, 
eight hundred thousand boxes of twenty-eight pounds each. 

When we remember that this class of raisins is as yet hardly pro- 
duced in California, and that the nine hundred and seventy-nine thou- 
sand boxes or more imported could and should be supplied by us, it 
would seem that our fears of overproduction will not immediately be 
realized. The tendency of the raisin market is now to supplant these 
Valencia dipped raisins with California undipped or sun-dried raisins, 
the California Sultanas being considered superior for the same purpose 
that Valencias were formerly used. 

CORINTH AND CURRANTS. 

Historical and Geographical Notes. — The principal and only raisins 
of any great commercial importance which are produced by Greece 
are the currants. We have already spoken of their name, and its 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 23 

supposed origin from the town of Corinth, and of their having been 
mentioned by Pliny in the year 75 A. d. The currants must thus 
very early have been of considerable importance as a commercial 
product, although the great increase in their production is of more 
recent date. The crusades which brought the nations of the North 
in contact with the Orient and the South also spread the knowledge 
of the Grecian currants to the distant parts of Europe. After the 
Latin conquest, currants became a commercial article, and we have 
every reason to suppose that, as early as the beginning of the thirteenth 
century, currants had reached the English shores, and that in the 
middle of the fourteenth century the English trade was fully estab- 
lished. Raysins of Corauntz were quoted in 1374 at two pence and 
three farthings per pound, equivalent to one dollar and twenty-five 
cents in our money at its present value. In 151 3, the first English 
consul was appointed at Chios, and from that time on a direct trafiic 
was maintained between the Grecian Islands and the North of Europe. 
In 1582, Hakluyt writes that efforts had been made to introduce the 
coren plant or vine into England, but that the same failed to fruit. 
The first introduction of the Zante vine into England is supposed by 
Anderson to have taken place in 1533. In the end of the sixteenth 
century, the currant traders were in full intercourse with the Venetians 
on the Island of Zante, and the Turks on the mainland or Morea. In 
158 1, the Eevant Company received a monopoly in the trade of the 
small fruits called currants, being the raysins of Corinth. According 
to Wheler, who traveled in the Ionian Islands in 1675, Zante pro- 
duced enough currants to charge five or six vessels, Cephalonia three 
or four, and Nathaligo, Missolonghi and Patros one each. Some few 
were also brought down from the Gulf of Eepanto. 

As to the native home of the currants, opinions have considerably 
differed. Some have supposed Zante or Naxos to have been the origi- 
nal. home of this grape; while others, with better reasons, have held 
tTiat their original home was Corinth. Beaujour, who was French 
consul in Greece in 1790, says: "The fruit is not indigenous to Morea, 
No writer before the sixteenth century mentions it, and the result of 
my inquiries is that the currant came from Naxos into the Morga about 
1580. It is true no such plant now exists in Naxos, but it has simi- 
larly disappeared from the territory of Corinth, though it is very certain 
it was cultivated there in former days, when the Venetians held the 
country." This account does not agree with the statements of Comte 
Grasset St. Sauveur, consul to the Ionian Islands from France in 178 1, 
He states, in his History of the Ionian Islands, that "the first plants 
were imported from Corinth to Zante about two centuries ago ' ' (or about 
1580). There are no exact records of the time or of the introducer; 
but the date is fixed by the regulations of the Senate of Venice relating 
to custom duties. It is likely this introduction took place not much 
before 1553, and was caused by the hostility of the Turks, who then 
held Morea, to the merchant vessels of the other nations of Europe, 
who in fact forbade them any entrance to the Gulf of Corinth, the 
principal export place for the currants. Thus John Locke, who in 
1553 describes Zante, speaks of other products of the island, but not 
of currants. 



24 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

Hakluyt states that, in 1586, the chief commodities of the island 
were " oyle and currants. " The latter, then, must have been intro- 
duced some time in the middle of the sixteenth century. Lithgow, a 
Scotch traveler who in 1609 visited the islands and published an 
account of the same in 1633, informs us that, besides oyle and wine, 
Zante produced one hundred and sixty thousand chickens of currants, 
each chicken of gold being equal to nine shillings of Bnglish money. 
And he adds that the custom duties on those currants amounted to 
twenty-two thousand piasters (one piaster is equivalent to six shillings), 
a sum of money which those Islanders could not have afforded (they 
having been, not above sixty years ago, but a base, beggarly people, 
and in an obscure place) if it were not that in England there are some 
who cannot digest bread, etc. , without these currants. This seems to 
imply that, since the introduction of the currant culture in the Island 
of Zante about the year 1550, the Zanteans had suddenly become 
comparatively wealthy. So suddenly had this important industry 
spread, that in 16 10, according to Sandys, the chief export of both 
Zante and Cephalonia was currants. In 16 12, Cory at says that 
" Zante is famous for its wine, oile and currants." Fynes Moryson, 
in his "Itinerary" published in 1617, states that " the English mer- 
chant vessels exported currants from Zante and Cephalonia, and from 
Petrasso in the Gulfe of Corinth," Tavernier says, in 1678, that, 
* ' Corinth exports great quantities of currants. Patras does the same, 
which is all the trade from those two places." In 1682, Wheler states 
that ' ' the ports of Patros, Nathaligo and Missolonghi, all three 
together having enough to lade only one good ship every year." 
Randolph, in 1689, mentions that currants were first planted on the 
plains of Corinth, and that the plain about Vostizza produced corn, 
currants and wine. Of Zante, he says that it produced two thousand 
tons of currants. Thus it will seem as if, through the fostering care of 
the Venetians, the currant trade was transplanted from the mainland 
of Morea to the Islands of Zante and Cephalonia, there to become of 
almost national importance. Until the Turks were expelled from 
Morea, the latter never made any serious efforts to recover the lost 
trade. First in later times the culture of currants has again spread on 
the mainland, especially on the northern shore of the Gulf of Corinth, 
and to-day the combined production of the Morean vineyards is 
largely in excess of that of the Ionian Islands. 

In our times the currants are exported either from the mainland of 
Greece, the Morea, the ancient Peloponnesus, or from the Grecian 
Islands, — Cephalonia and Zante. In Morea, the principal ports for the 
exportation of the currants are Patras and Vostizza, although other 
ports export a few. Even the Islands of Ithaca and Santa Maura 
contribute a few. Efforts have been made to extend the culture of the 
currant vine, and introduce it to other islands, but not with any great 
degree of success. This is entirely attributed to climatic conditions. 

Characteristics and Quality. — The currants are small, seedless raisins 
produced from the currant grape, which again is characterized by small 
clusters, which, when perfect, are very compact like the heads of 
Indian com or maize. The skin of the berries is thin, the pulp very 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 25 

sweet, with a strong flavor and aroma. The raisins are similarly 
aromatic and very sweet, sometimes semi-transparent, but generally 
dark violet. The flavor of the raisins is entirely distinct from the 
Muscatel, and is very superior to that of the also seedless Sultana 
raisins. 

Soil and Irrigation. — The soil best suited to the currant grape is a 
calcareous marl, which must be of good depth, loose, and easily 
worked. Such marls are also prized for their great power of retain- 
ing moisture. But vineyards are planted in Cephalonia, Zante and 
Ithaca in the most different soils and situations. They are found in 
gray marls, in red clay, on the plains and among the hills, in fact, 
in the most widely different situations. The soil of Zante contains a 
small percentage of sulphate of lime or gypsum, which is by many 
considered indispensable for the successful and profitable culture 
of the currant vine. The currant vine thrives especially in low and 
rich land which can be irrigated, and irrigation is quite essential to 
the perfect development of the grapes. Many vineyards, however, 
are not irrigated, the irrigation, of course, only being practicable on 
the plains. This irrigation is practiced from October to the end of 
December, often while the natural rainfall supplies the artificial water- 
ing. The lands are generally small freeholdings, owned by the 
peasants. The most valuable currant vineyards are situated on the 
rich and level valley lands. 

Preparation of the Land for Irrigation. — The preparation of the 
land for a currant vineyard is expensive, as the land is hardly ever 
level enough to admit of the vines being immediately planted. The 
surface is therefore first leveled and divided up in smaller cheeks or 
flats, each one surrounded by a bank. The whole is covered with a 
network of ditches, which are necessary for the perfect irrigation of 
the soil. Where there is water enough, the vineyards are irrigated in 
November and December, and are then flooded as often as practicable, 
the water sometimes standing on the ground for weeks in succession. 
In perfectly arranged vineyards, the irrigation is so managed that the 
water flows from one check to another, and is first shut off at the 
advent of the New Year, when the pruning and cultivation begins. 
By this plentiful irrigation, the ground becomes thoroughly soaked, 
and remains saturated until the next season, when rain again sets 
in and fills the irrigation canals. No summer irrigation is used in 
old vineyards, and in young vineyards only in case of great necessity. 

Distances of the Currant Vi?ies. — The vines are set at various dis- 
tances, in some places four feet each way, in others again six by 
ten, giving a various number of from 740 to 2,622 to the acre. In 
some places, the old practice of planting the vines in groups of four 
still exists. Each group consists of four vines one and a half feet 
apart, and each group distant six feet from each other either way. 
Of late, however, the vines are planted farther apart, probably because 
the soil is becoming exhausted, a favorite way being to have the vines 
closer one way than the other. 

Care of Cuttings, Planting and Grafting. — Great importance is 
attached to procuring cuttings from a distance, or in getting new 
strains. Cuttings from the nearest vineyard are never used, as they 



26 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

are considered to produce inferior vines, and not do as well. To 
procure cuttings or vines, the old vines are sometimes cut a few 
inches below the surface of the soil, causing the parent plant to 
throw off numerous suckers or shoots, which the following winter are 
separated and used as we do rooted vines here in California. Three 
or four years will elapse before they come into regular bearing. Some 
vineyards are produced by grafting the black currant on the wine 
grape, and many wine vineyards that do not pay are thus transformed 
into paying raisin vineyards. The grafted vines come into bearing 
much sooner than those grown from cuttings. The grafting is per- 
formed in Zante as follows: The soil is dug away from the main 
trunk of the old vine to the depth of from twelve to eighteen inches, 
and the trunk cut off square at the bottom of the pit. Two or three 
scions are then inserted in the trunk, and made to slightly project 
above the ground, in no case with more than two or three eyes. 
Clay is then applied to the joint of the graft, and the trunk slightly 
covered with leaves, and the hole then filled up with soil. The 
grafting is done in the spring, and the cuttings must be kept dormant 
in dark and cool cellars. 

Pnining the Vi7ies. — The pruning is done in the fall, just as soon as 
the leaves have fallen, and is performed in two parts. In December, 
the vines are cleaned of all small, weakly or dead branches, and at 
that time only the large and strong branches are left. In February, 
the regular cutting back commences, two or three eyes being left on 
every spur. There are as many different ideas of pruning the vines 
in Greece as there are in California, each one having his favorite 
methods and theories as to what is proper and what is not. Some 
vineyardists prefer to delay the second pruning until after the vines 
have started to bud out, and, when the young shoots are two weeks 
old, the old wood is so cut that the bleeding of the vine will not run 
down on the bud. Bleeding is at any time considered injurious. 
The principal pruning is therefore conducted in February, as being 
the time most suitable to the currant grape and conducive to the best 
crops. Mr. Manoti, a very intelligent Zanteote currant grower, told 
Dr. Davy {Ionio7i Islands, page 343) that he had at one time experi- 
mented with pruning the currant vine at diflferent times of the year. 
Those pruned in December yielded ver}^ few grapes, which were large; 
those pruned in April gave plentj^, but very small berries. Again, 
those pruned in February were in every waj^ the best. Mr. Manoti 
added that if he had told one of his neighbors of his experiments they 
would have laughed at him, and said, "Whoever thinks of pruning 
the uva passa (or currant) in December or April." This shows how 
much the growers are opposed to experimenting and improving upon 
the methods which have been handed down to them from their fore- 
fathers. As we have shown, the currant vines are all very closely pruned, 
very much in the same way as our Muscats. Seldom more than three 
spurs are allowed to remain, each one with two or three eyes. Sum- 
mer pruning or topping the branches is never practiced on the currant 
vines, but generally on the wine grapes. On the contrary the currant 
branches are carefully guarded, and in order that they may not break 
are tied to stakes from fotir to five feet high. 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 27 

Ca7-e of the Vineyard. — After irrigation is over, the vineyards are 
dug over. The soil is dug up around the vines and placed on top of 
the ground in small heaps, which process is considered beneficial both 
to the roots of the vines and to the soil. In April, this soil is all put 
back, and the ground leveled. Each vine is staked. By the middle 
of April, the vines are in leaf. By the middle of July, the first fruit 
is ripe, and by the middle of August the harvest has everywhere 
begun. The stakes for the vines are imported at a cost of $15 or $16 
per thousand, and constitute the most expensive item in the construc- 
tion of a currant vineyard. 

The mildew or oidium, which some fifty years ago spread all over 
the world, destroyed many of the vineyards before the sulphuring was 
discovered as a sure remedy. Sulphuring the vines is now regularly 
practiced in all the vineyards; but there is a popular belief that the 
raisins are no longer of the same fine and pure flavor as they used to 
be before the advent of the oidium and the sulphur. 

Ringing the Branches. — A process much used in the currant vine- 
yards is the ringing of the branches. At the time of blossoming, some 
of the main branches are cut in such a way that a small ring of bark 
is separated from the branch near its base. The sap which ascends 
in the interior of the branch, but which returns by the bark, is 
thus prevented from returning, and must remain in the branch. The 
eflfect is that a large number of clusters are formed with berries both 
larger and sweeter than those not thus treated. But the practice is not 
without its drawbacks. In the dry lands of Cephalonia, where it was 
first introduced, it was soon discovered that the ringed vines began 
to fail after two or three years, and the method had to be modified or 
abandoned. In Morea, where the soil is moister and richer, the ring- 
ing did not prove as dangerous, and is yet practiced, though great care 
is taken that the same branch is never girdled or ringed in two suc- 
cessive years. Only the strongest vines are able to resist the exhausting 
effects of the process; the weaker ones should never be forced to 
overproduce. 

The exhalations of fig-trees and pomegranate bushes are considered 
most beneficial to the currant grape, and the former are found every- 
where among the plantations, especially along roads and ditches. 

Drying and Curing. — The drying and curing of the currant grapes 
are done on drying grounds. These are simply leveled places covered 
with fresh cow dung, or cow dung first mixed with water into a 
paste. When this paste is dried, it presents a smooth surface, firm 
but elastic, and entirely free from smell. This kind of drying ground 
is considered the best kind. Inferior drying grounds are simply made 
of the cleared soil. The currants dried on the latter are always full of 
sand and dirt to an alarming extent, and bring an inferior price in 
the market. The bunches are turned several times until dry, when 
they are raked over with a wooden rake or broom, by which process 
the stalks are separated from the berries. The berries are now 
gathered, and the better qualities are winnowed in machines like 
our fanning-mills. The next step is to sweat the currants, which is 
simply done by piling them in air-tight rooms. The currants are here 
put in large piles, which by sweating and pressure become so hard 



28 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

and solid that, when removing the berries, a sharp spade is used for 
digging. The vintage begins in July in Zante; Cephalonia grapes 
ripen almost one week earlier. 

Cost of Cicrrant Vineyards in Greece. — In the Grecian Islands and 
Morea, the best vineyard land varies between $80 and $125 per acre for 
unimproved land. To prepare the land for the vineyard and irrigation, 
it will cost, in extreme cases, from $20 to $50 more. The first year's 
cultivation and care of the young vines is, of course, different accord- 
ing to locality, but the average is seldom less than $50 per acre. The 
value of already planted property or a vineyard in good bearing is 
seldom less than $320 per acre, and often as high as $650 per acre, — 
four stremmas. Strange enough, in calculating the cost of a vineyard 
in Greece, no one ever takes into consideration the price of the planta- 
tion or the capital invested. The interest on the same is never consid- 
ered by the natives. In this respect they resemble our own farmers, 
who, in calculating the expenses of their farms, never take into con- 
sideration the labor of themselves and family. Of course, it is almost 
impossible to obtain exact calculations of profit. The following will 
serve as a sample: An acre of vineyard planted to currants yields 
3,200 pounds. The price obtained for the same is two cents per 
pound, or $64. The labor for the year on one acre is estimated at $45, 
leaving a yearly profit of $19 per acre. In reality, however, this is 
not a true statement, as it does not consider the interest on the capital. 
If the same should be added, it is evident that there would be but little 
or no profit in the growing of currants. The industry simply enables 
the peasant who pursues the work to live and support his family, and 
possibly to pay his taxes. Only the very best land and the best vine- 
yards can pay enough to enable its owner to save up a capital, gener- 
ally a difficult thing in Greece for any one but a merchant or gov- 
ernment officer. 

As a rule, the cost of producing one hundred pounds of currant 
raisins is not less than $1.35. Whatever the merchant pays above this 
to the producer will be for the benefit of the producer. But, as a rule, 
this way of buying direct is not in use. The merchant sells on com- 
mission, and what this means we who have had experience in the 
raisin business in this State all know. We will see how a calculation 
of an acre of currants will look, when all the expenses are taken into 
consideration: 
One acre of currants equals 3,200 pounds at three cents 

per pound $96.00 

Expense on 3,200 pounds at $1.35 $43 00 

Packing and hauling 7.50 

Freight, insurance, duty, etc 22.50 

Interest on capital invested i5-oo 

Merchant charges say 8.00 

$96.00 

In this instance the poor currant raiser has had no other profit than 
the five per cent interest on his capital invested; he has, in other 
words, come out even. But figures, sometimes, are apt to lie. The 
profit, no doubt, is small to the producer, but it must still be some. 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 29 

He makes, no doubt, fair wages according to his own ideas, and as lie 
has paid for his capital in labor, and probably never handled a dollar 
of the same, he considers himself comparatively well-to-do. But, as 
currant vineyards somttimes sell, and sell high, too, it is simply unac- 
countable that the interest is never taken into consideration in estimat- 
ing the profits of the grower. The currant industry is, I believe, the 
only one in the world in which this is not done. I have thus exten- 
sively dwelt upon the profits and expenses of this industry in its 
native country, on account of the many attempts to introduce the 
growing of currants here in Cahfornia. The question with us is, will 
it pay. Our advantage is that our currants would be protected; but 
still it is very doubtful if currant plantations would ever pay enough to 
warrant us to engage in the same. The price paid at present is too 
low, and, as long as Muscatels bring a higher price, it will probably be 
the favorite grape with us. 

Consumption a?id Production. — The importation of currants to Eng- 
land was, at the end of the last century, about 3,600 tons. In 1832 
this had risen to 7,135 tons, in 1864 to 37,151 tons, and in 1876 to 
48,595 tons. As regards the production of currants in Greece, the 
average yield from 1816 to 1826 was, for Cephalonia, 2,000 tons, 
for Zante 3,000 tons, and for Morea 4,000 tons or over. From 
that time on the exportations from Zante and Cephalonia increased, 
while the export of Morea decreased. Thus, in 1833, Zante and 
Cephalonia exported about 11,000 tons, and Morea only 2,000 tons, 
this principally on account of the Greek revolution. In 1840, the 
three places exported 14,206 tons, which again in 1849 had risen to 
30,850 tons, in 1858 to 32,950 tons, in 1868 to 55,283 tons, and in 1876 
to 86, 104 tons. This large crop was exported as follows: England, 
60,263 tons; Germany, 1,475 tons; Holland, 4,847 tons; Trieste, 3,241 
tons; America, 11,225 tons; Belgium, 4,105 tons; Various, 948 tons. 
Since that time the production of currants has increased greatly 
in Greece, especially on the mainland, and now it reaches yearly from 
126,000 to 130,000 tons. During the last four years the production 
has been about as follows (according to L. C. Crowe in the California 
Fruit-growtr) : 1884, 130,000 tons ; 1885, 1 14,000 tons ; 1886, 126,000 
tons; 1887, 127,000 tons. 

In 1886 this crop was produced in the following places : 

Gulf of Corinth 7,000 tons. 

Vostizza 10,000 ' ' 

Patras 12,000 " 

Gastuni, Pergos, Olympia 38,000 " 

Kyparissia, Figliatra, Gargaliano 17,000 " 

Eigudista, Pylos, Modone and Corone 9,000 " 

Kalamata and Nisi 14,000 ' ' 

Missolonghi, ^tolico, Eepanto 2,500 " 

Nauplia and Argos 600 " 

Total for Morea and Acarnania 1 10,000 " 

Ionian Islands, Cephalonia, Ithaca, Santa Maura. 10,500 " 
Zante 6,000 " 

Total 126,000 " 



30 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

Of this crop the United States imported as follows (the freight to 
New York in 1886 ranging from 17s. 6d. to 20s. per ton, gross): 1883, 
13,895 tons; 1884, 10,175 tons ; 1885, 8,283 tons; 1886, 8,755 tons. 

In the United States, the consumption of currants has increased 
largely during the last twenty-five years. In 1874, we imported 
14,141,797 pounds of currants; but in 1888 the importations had 
increased to 30,636,424 pounds, valued at $1,176,532. The duty is now 
one cent per pound in this country; while in England it is seven shil- 
lings per hundred pounds. 

The currants exported to the United States are known as Provincial 
currants or American staple, and are not considered the best quality ; 
they are grown principally in Trifylla and Pylia and are shipped from 
the ports Zante and Patras. Some come also from Vostizza, Catacolo, 
Kalamata, Nauplia and Cephalonia. The Kalamata currants are in- 
ferior and are mostly exported to France for brandy and wine making. 
The choicest currants are those grown in Zante, and there known as 
"Cascalina." They go mostly to England, while the other products 
of the islands go to Belgium, Holland and Northern Germany. 

Currants in California. — California has so far not cut any figure as 
a currant-producing country, not because the currants will not grow 
here, but because no one has ever seriously engaged in their culture. 
Currant grapevines are scattered all over the State; but, to our knowl- 
edge, no plantations are larger than an acre or two. In Fresno, a few 
acres of currants are found in the Mirabelle Vineyard east of town, 
and a few hundred vines are also grown on the Raisina Vineyard in the 
Central Colony. Outside of these we know of only scattered vines. 
These currants are all of the white variety, which is considered inferior 
to the black currant of Zante and the mainland of Greece. When 
dried, they produce a most beautiful semi-transparent raisin, entirely 
seedless, with a very thin skin and of very fine flavor. The yield, 
however, has from some cause or other not been equal to expectations, 
and, the price of currants being lower than that of other raisins, the 
former has not been considered as profitable as the Muscatels. Until 
we import the true black currant from Zante and find the most 
suitable locality to grow them, it is not likely that currant culture will 
make much headway in this country. We have, however, no doubt 
that, with our various climates, many places will be found in California 
where the currant will yield enough to pay, provided our raisinmen 
will be satisfied with a reasonable profit. 

SMYRNA RAISINS. 

Districts in Smyrna : Their Extent and Climate. — The port of 
Smyrna, so famous for its dried figs, is hardly less renowned for the 
immense quantity of raisins and dried grapes of different kinds which 
are shipped from there to all parts of the world. While Smyrna figs 
are better known than Smyrna raisins, the latter are by far the most 
important industry. Thus from 1880 to 1881 the raisin crop exported 
from Smyrna was valued at $4,602,388; while the value of the fig crop 
did not exceed $1,646,998, or about three million dollars less than the 
former. Since that time the raisin trade has 3^et further increased, 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 31 

until it to-day reaches one hundred thousand tons of raisins and dried 
grapes. UnHke the figs, which are only grown in the interior valleys 
some thirty to sixty miles from Smyrna, the grapes which produce 
the raisins are grown in the immediate vicinity of the town. The 
large territory which exports the Smyrna raisins can, however, be 
divided into several sub-districts, each one having some characteristics 
of its own, both as regards quality of raisins, time of ripening, etc. 
These districts are : Chesme, Vourla, Yerly and Carabouma. The 
principal variety of grape grown in these districts is the Sultana, a 
seedless grape with enormous bunches. Many other varieties are 
found there also, such as "black" and "red," the latter said to be 
identical with the Spanish Muscat of Alexandria, which I doubt. 

The Chesme district is situated to the west on the peninsula near 
Smyrna, its principal port for exportation of the crop being the town 
of Chesme. The Chesme raisins are considered inferior to those of 
the other districts. Three-fourths of the raisins from the district are 
exported to Hamburg, Bremen, Stettin, Amsterdam, and to Trieste 
in Austria. The latter town is the main distributing point for most 
of the raisins grown in the eastern Mediterranean raisin districts. 

The Carabourna or Karabournou district produces the best raisins, — 
both of the Sultanas, the red and the black. The district is situated 
to the east and north on the same peninsula as Chesme. The district 
is rough and hilly, but the whole is cultivated to vines. The Cara- 
bouma ' ' Elemes ' ' go about one-half to Russia, the balance to England 
and Trieste. 

The Vourla district consists of a fertile plain lying on the isthmus 
between the Bay of Smyrna and Scala Nova or Ephesus. The export 
place is the port of Vourla, one of the finest harbors on the coast of 
Asia Minor, and often the meeting place for fleets of the Western 
nations of Europe during their remonstrances in Turkish waters. 

The Yerly district immediately surrounds the town of Smyrna, and 
extends from Nymphio in the east to Tourbali in the south and Sivri- 
Hissar in the west, thus bordering the Vourla district. Yerly Sultanas 
are the earliest in the market, sometimes being ready in the first weeks 
of August. 

Small quantities of raisins also come from Tyra, Bairdir, Aidin and 
other places in the fig districts in the interior. The Island of Samos, 
oflf the coast of Asia Minor, produces raisins of several kinds, such 
as Sultanas, black raisins, principally for distilling abroad, and Mus- 
catel raisins, the latter reaching three thousand tons in favorable 
seasons. The Island of Cos or Stan-chio is also famous for its Sul- 
tana raisins, said to be the finest of any produced in Turkey. 

The climate of the Smyrna raisin districts is very mild, allowing 
farm labor to be performed the year round. The temperature seldom 
falls below the freezing point, while from the middle of May to the 
middle of September it ranges from 70 to 90 degrees Fahrenheit in the 
shade. During the summer, the Imbat or Seabreeze tempers the 
heat and makes the climate pleasant to live in. The grapes begin to 
ripen about July first, the Sultana grapes being the earliest. The 
rainfall is abundant during the rainy months of the year, September 



32 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 



to April, and averages twenty-five inches, varying from fifteen inches 
in dry seasons to thirty-three inches in very wet years. The following 
table of the rainfall is taken from the consular reports published in 
1884: 

Table shoTJtnng the monthly rainfallin the city of Smyrna, in inches and hundredths 

of inches, during the nineteen years eliding with 18S2. 

Compiled by W. E. Stevens, Consul at Smyrna. 



% 



1864 

1865 

1866 

1867 

1868 

1869 

1870 

1871 

1872 

1873 

1S74 

1875 

1S76 

1877 

1878 

1879 

1880 

1881 

1S82 

Average 



3-59 
7.07 
1.40 
2.63 
8.30 

3-21 

5-79 
II. 10 

3-17 
2.41 
.14 
4-58 
2.88 
3 -08 
6.27 
4.28 
1. 61 
6.15 
1.27 



4.15 



1-53 
9.05 
1.78 
3-14 
•32 
•74 
2.81 
1.19 
1.46 

5-64 
5.82 
9.48 

1-45 
2.92 
2.10 
2.69 
•30 
3-92 
1.17 



■58 
4-43 
1.79 
1. 16 
[1. 24 
12.07 
2.29 
1.29 

•50 
2.08 
1.92 
5-78 
2-53 
4.84 
3.00 
1. 61 
2.87 
1.74 
1.04 



3-75 

1.42 

.20 

•37 

.92 

1.78 

2.24 

.66 

4.18 

•50 

.40 
1.36 
3.12 
I. II 
4-97 

•35 
1.69 

.80 
3-45 



3 •OS 3-30 



i^75 



i^59 

•23 

•95 

^•37 

•83 

.19 

.07 

1.09 

3-09 

2.38 

•15 



.42 

3-47 
.29 
2.36 
2.69 
1^45 
.66 



1.22 



2.40 
.10 
•13 



1.76 
.94 

•13 
.01 
.18 



.40 



.04 



.09 



•39 



•52 
.08 

3-95 

.07 

2.82 



3-51 

1.27 

.08 

i^54 
1.30 
1. 81 
4-45 
1.36 



.02 

•15 

.08 

.61 

1.22 

1.38 

1.32 



2.50 
•30 

2.87 
•94 

4.00 



1.88 



29.84 
26.69 
15.16 
23.72 
30.20 

24.77 
28.98 
28.77 
24.23 
21.21 
28. 05 
33-04 
27-95 
33-51 
27-95 
21.26 
17.88 
24.50 
21.25 



47 



4-34 25.73 



As will be seen, most of the vineyards are situated within the reach 
of the seabreezes, some even being almost on the edge of the waters of 
the Mediterranean. The best vineyards are those which are situated 
inland from seven to twenty miles from the coast. The vineyard dis- 
tricts are all rough and hilly, except those in the Vourla district, 
which are on comparatively level ground. While some vineyards 
stretch from the seashore, others reach an elevation of four hundred 
feet or over. The soil varies with the districts. The best soil for the 
Sultanas is considered to be hippurite limestone soil, common in some 
districts. This white, marly soil is in places mixed with a yellow- 
ocher-colored loam, with sand and gravel. The abundance of the 
rainfall makes irrigation unnecessary, and no vines are grown with 
irrigation. 

Care of the Vines. — While no general irrigation is needed, the young 
vines are watered by hand in years of exceptionally light rainfall. 
The vines are generally grown from rooted cuttings, which have 
been planted in trenches the year before. Previous to the planting of 
a vineyard, the soil is dug to the depth of three or four feet. If 
this can be done the year before planting, it is considered better, as 
resulting in a quicker and stronger growth of the vines. 

In older vineyards, the vines are set in rows six or seven feet apart, 
and with three or four feet between the rows. The vines are not grown to 
Standards, but from branching stalks from one to two and a half feet 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 33 

high, with an average height of one and a half feet from the ground. 
No stakes are used, and only occasionally is there seen a prop under 
heavier loaded branches. 

The pruning is done in the winter, when the vines are comparatively 
dormant. The superfluous branches are then cut away, and the 
remaining ones are cut to two or three eyes each. The cultivation was, 
until lately, performed in the simplest way with pick and spade. The 
first digging is done in January, at which time also the ground is 
manured. This is done by digging pits and trenches in the vineyard, 
which are filled with goat and camel dung. These trenches remain 
open for a month or more, and are after that time filled in. The 
first digging in the soil is done in November, the second one in January 
and February, when, in leveling the ground, it is at the same time dug 
over again one foot or more. The third or last digging is per- 
formed in March, when simply the weeds are spaded under. Of late 
years, vineyardists from other Mediterranean districts have settled in 
Smyrna and brought with them better methods. Greek farmers have 
especially done much to improve the old ways of cultivation used by 
the slovenly or ignorant natives. 

In May, the young shoots are pinched back after the grapes have set 
well and began to develop. The pinching of the ends produces a 
second crop, which, besides being later, also consists of smaller 
grapes than the first. All sterile and inferior shoots are then cut off, 
and this is repeated during the summer in order that the vines may not 
be weakened unnecessarily. The vines come into bearing in the third 
year, begin to pay expenses in the fourth year, and leave a profit in 
the fifth year after being set out. In the seventh and eighth years the 
vines are considered in full bearing. 

The Sultana grapes begin to ripen in July. The vintage begins 
towards the end of July, and lasts until the middle of August. 
Other varieties of grapes are later, lasting from the middle of August 
to the end of September, their vintage seldom lasting as late as the first 
week of October. The first raisins are ready about August ist, and 
the last Sultanas are all in by September ist, the other varieties of 
raisins coming in later. 

Dipping, Drying and Curing. — The curing of the grapes into 
raisins requires great care, and nowhere is any more skill shown than 
in Smyrna. Its raisins are the most beautiful of any, their splendid 
appearance and transparency being due to the process employed. The 
drying is done on drying-floors, which sometimes consist of the bare 
ground only, at other times of elevated beds of earth a foot or so 
high. When the soil is not naturally hard and suitable for drying- 
floors, it is first prepared by cutting off" the weeds, and is then 
watered and packed until a smooth and hard surface is produced. 
This hard bed is sometimes left bare, and at other times covered with 
matting. In other places the grapes are dried on canvas, or on 
trays made of the Italian reed, or of grasses. These trays are raised 
on props three or four inches above the ground, and are loose so that 
they may be put on top of each other to exclude the sun, rain or fog, 
according to locality and season. Great stress is laid upon having the 



34 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

grapes fully ripe. Before thus exposed, the grapes are dipped in a 
solution of lye and oil, and upon the skill in this performance depends 
the beauty and value of the raisins. A potash is made from the 
ashes of the vine cuttings of the previous year. About one gallon of 
this potash solution is mixed with from twenty to twenty-live gallons 
of water, making a weak lye solution of a strength of from five to six 
degrees in Beaume's " lyyeometer, " A similar strength would be 
obtained by dissolving one pound of pearl ash in ten gallons of 
water. Tubs of wood or zinc of the size of two and a half by two 
feet are used for dipping. To every such tub of twenty-five gallons is 
added from one-fourth to two gallons of olive oil. The latter quantity 
is used in the Karabournou district, where the finest raisins are made. 
When of proper strength as regards both oil and lye, the wash runs 
off from the bunches smoothly; when, again, the wash runs off in 
small globules, there is a deficiency of either oil or potash. The 
grapes are loaded in small baskets of twenty-five pounds each, and 
immersed in the wash for half a minute. They are then taken out and 
spread either on the ground or on trays or canvas. In the interior, 
where the sun is hot, the reed mats are placed on top of each other to 
exclude the sun. The same is also done if rain or fog is feared. After 
a few days of exposure, and when partially dried, the raisins are sprin- 
kled every morning with the same lye solution, but without oil. The 
Sultanas are dried in from five to eight days. This dipping process is 
also used for the larger Muscatels, but the lye is made stronger, prob- 
ably reaching the proportion of about one and a half pounds of pearl 
ash to five gallons of water. The carefully dipped raisins have a pure 
greenish amber color, and a peculiar flavor. They are worth twenty 
per cent more than undipped fruit. 

The Sultanas of the better grades are now sold oflf-stalk or loose. The 
finest brands are the Chesme elem^, or Chesme select. Eleme means 
choice or select, and is used both for raisins and figs. The yield of an 
acre of Sultana vines varies in different vineyards, according to the 
quality of the soil. A good yield is considered about seven tons of 
fresh grapes, or about two and a third tons of raisins. 

The price of the Smyrna Sultanas fluctuates considerably; but it 
may be said that the best grades are always from twenty-five to thirty 
per cent higher than the dipped raisins of Valencia. Thus, in 1843, 
dipped Valencias brought six and a quarter cents, while the 
Smyrna Sultanas brought ten cents. In 1844, the Valencias were 
quoted at ten cents, while the Sultanas brought twenty cents per 
pound. Of late years, the Smyrna Sultanas have fluctuated between 
four and a half and twelve and a half cents per pound. 

Production mid Export. — The production of Smyrna raisins and 
dried grapes has enormously increased during the last few years. In 
1844, the average crop was only from six to eight thousand tons. In 
1868, this had increased to nineteen thousand tons, and in 187 1 we find 
the export from Smyrna to be forty-eight thousand tons. In 1881, 
this had grown to seventy-five thousand tons (according to the consu- 
lar report of Consul-General G. H. Heap of Constantinople). Of the 
districts already mentioned, Chesme and Vourla produce about three 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 35 

times as much as Yerly and Carabourna, A somewliat varied estimate 
of the Smyrna raisin crop is given by Consul W. E. Stevens of 
Smyrna, in his report dated February 28, 1884. According to him, the 
raisin crop of Smyrna should amount to one million, nine hundred 
thousand hundred weight or ninety-five thousand tons. These two 
consular estimates would give Smyrna as follows: 187 1, forty-eight 
thousand tons; 1872, thirty-one thousand tons; 1879, seventy-five 
thousand tons; 1881, forty-nine thousand tons; 1884, ninety-five thou- 
sand tons. This, of course, includes all kinds of raisins. As regards the 
Sultana raisins, the reports of the two consuls also differ. By Consul 
Stevens, it is estimated to be thirty-two thousand, five hundred tons, 
or sixty-five million pounds; while Consul Heap puts the figures at only 
nineteen million, four hundred thousand pounds, or only nine thousand, 
seven hundred tons. We have no means to verify the statements, but 
are inclined to think the higher figure the more correct. If it is true 
that the raisin yield of Smyrna to-day reaches one hundred thousand 
tons, it would be absurd to think that only ten per cent should be 
Sultanas, which is the principal raisin grape of the district. It is 
more probable that at least one-third of the whole crop consists of Sul- 
tanas. About eighty per cent of all the Sultana raisins go to England, 
ten per cent are consumed by Eastern Europe and Russia, a small part 
only going to the United States. 

Cost of Vineyards in Smyrna. — The cost of vineyards in the Smyrna 
district varies just as it does elsewhere. Bearing vineyards change 
hands at from three hundred to four hundred and fifty dollars per acre. 
The 5^earlylabor on an acre of vines, including pruning, cultivation and 
drying, amounts to fifty dollars an acre or more. The average yield 
per acre averages from about eighty-five to ninety dollars, leaving a 
profit of from thirty to forty dollars, equal to from about eight to ten 
per cent on the capital invested. I believe, however, that these figures 
may be modified, and that the profit on an acre of average vineyard 
often reaches from fifty to sixty dollars. The fact that an acre of vine- 
yard sells for four hundred and fifty dollars indicates that it must not 
only give a fair but a good interest on that sum. The raisins from 
one acre of a Smyrna vineyard are sold for $88. The interest 
on the par value of an acre ($450) for one year at five per cent is 
$22.50. The other expenses during the year amount to $50, leaving, 
as net profit, $6.50. The above is a low estimate copied from English 
statements. 

Other Varieties of Raisins. — Besides Sultanas, Smyrna produces an 
enormous quantity of raisins of other kinds. The demand for these 
has been and is constantly increasing, the most being shipped to manu- 
facturers of wines, distilled liquors of all kinds, jellies, jams, etc. 
These varieties are known as Earge Black and Large Red. These 
varieties are grown in all the Smyrna districts, and in quantity far exceed 
the Sultanas. The following will give an idea of how this trade has 
increased of late. Red and Black Smyrna raisins in tons: 1868,12,795, 
1876, 15,500; 1881, 40,000; 1883, 45,000; 1888, 60,000. The price 
varies from three to four cents per pound in the local market. Judging 
from the constantly increased export of these kinds of raisins, it is not 
likely that the production of the same is likely to soon be overdone. 



36 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY, 

ITALY AND ITALIAN RAISINS. 

Lipari and Belvidere. — Of the Mediterranean countries, Italy pro- 
duces the smallest quantity of raisins. We cannot imagine this to be 
■on account of unsuitable soil and climate, but more on account of the 
tardiness of its people to take kindly to new industries and improve 
upon their older methods. In former years the raisins from Southern 
Italy were much exported to Northern Kurope; to-day the trade is 
insignificant. In the sixteenth century, the raisins from Lipari and 
Belvidere were of considerable repute, but were, however,- considered 
inferior to the Spanish raisins. The Island of Lipari, to-day princi- 
pally known on account of its volcanoes, produces yet so-called Lipari 
currants of larger size than those from Morea. They are of much 
inferior quality, being hard and dry and of oblong shape. 

Pantellaria. — The Island of Pantellaria, between Sicily and Africa, 
also produces raisins of somewhat better quality, which, if better 
packed, would favorably compare with the Lexias of Valencia and 
Denia. The Pantellarias, or Belvideres, as they are known in the 
market, are principally consumed in Northern Italy and Southern 
France. They are sweet and good raisins, which, if carefully and 
intelligently handled, would rapidly improve in quality. 

Calabria. — Since the destruction of the Calabrian raisins through the 
mildew, the raisin production of this peninsula has largely increased. 
In 1876, it had reached eight thousand tons, but must now probably be 
double that amount. The Calabrian raisins produced on the main- 
land of Italy are of good quality, and are principally exported to 
France. 

CHILE AND HUASCO RAISINS. 

Characteristics. — The Chile or Huasco raisin is one of the finest 
raisins in the world, and in the opinion of the author superior to both 
Spanish and California raisins. They excel in sweetness and aroma 
as well as flavor; their skin is thin, and the seeds are small. The 
color is entirely different from sun-dried California or Spanish raisins, 
being yellowish amber with a fine and thin bluish bloom, indicating 
that they have been dried in the shade or in partial shade without " 
dipping in lye or other solutions. 

Location. — The number of acres devoted to raisin culture in Chile is 
not known. The grapes for this purpose are grown almost exclusively 
in the valley of the Huasco, back of the port of Huasco in the province 
of Atacama. There appear to be two distinct valleys of the same 
name, one situated only twenty minutes' ride from the port of Huasco 
on the Pacific Ocean, the other farther inland about sixty miles from 
the coast. In the former place, the culture of the raisin grape is very 
limited, the whole valley and town only containing four hundred 
people, of which not all are occupied with the raisin industry. The 
interior valley is more extensive, and the largest quantity of the 
Huasco raisins come from this place. The port of Huasco is situated 
in latitude twenty-seven degrees, thirty minutes south, longitude 
seventy-one degrees, sixteen minutes west. 



*4. 




Muscatel or Gordo Blanco Raisin Grape, Second Crop. Two-thirds Natural Size 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 37 

Varieties. — The grape used for raisins is a variety of the Muscat, 
very similar to the Muscat of Alexandria. Grapevines transplanted 
to California resemble this variety very much, but, according to Pro- 
fessor Hilgard, set their fruit better, and do not suffer so much from 
colure. It is said that these grapes were imported to Chile long ago 
by the Spanish conquerors, and it is supposed they grew the vines 
from seed brought from Spain, and selected the best of the seedlings. 
In this way the slight difference of the Huasco grape from the Muscat 
of Alexandria can be accounted for. 

Soils. — The soil in the coast valley consists of a reddish, sandy loam, 
which , changes to a fine yellow sand, of great richness. This sand 
covers the hills almost everywhere in the vicinity of the Huasco river, 
the nature of the country being a rolling one. 

Climate. — The climate is notoriously dry, and rain falls only very 
seldom between June and September, is of short duration and very 
scant. In the interior valley, rain is said to be seldom known, and 
the climate there can be called entirely rainless. Dew is abundant in 
the winter, but the summers are warm and dry. 

Irrigation. — Near the coast no irrigation is required, but in the interior 
valley the grapes are irrigated three times a year, first when the buds 
begin to swell, second when they begin to blossom, and lastly when 
the fruit is well advanced. 

The Vineyard. — ^The vines are planted six feet one way by eight feet 
the other, and the intermediate space is often planted to alfalfa, giving 
three crops of hay each year. The heads are kept low, the vines are 
pruned heavily, and only two eyes left on each cane. Sometimes 
whole branches are cut away, especially if they do not bear well. 
The vines are grown both on hillsides and in the valleys on the bottom 
lands. Many of the vineyards are surrounded by elevated arbors or 
trellises, over which the vines are trained, to keep off the heavy spring 
winds which otherwise would break the branches, — windbreaks, in 
fact. The cultivation of the Huasco vines is of the most primitive 
kind. The land is poorly cultivated, and the fact that alfalfa is grown 
between the rows of the vines indicates that the industry is not highly 
developed. On the other hand, it is not impossible that the crowding 
together of various things on the land may help to give the grapes a 
certain flavor or aroma. 

There is said to be a great difference between the various Huasco 
grapes, some being very superior to others. The inferior kinds are 
called simply Muscats, while the better kinds are the Huascos. It is 
not known if these varieties come from different kinds of grapes, but 
it is likely that this is the case. Vines of the best variety transplanted 
to other localities than the Huasco valley give invariably indifferent 
results, and produce raisins inferior to the Huasco. 

Drying and Curijig. — The poorer qualities are simply dried on boards 
or on the roofs of the houses in the sun; but the fine and most valuable 
raisins are dried in the shade. When ripe, the bunches are carefully 
picked and taken to open sheds with thatched roofs, and there hung 
up to dry. The raisins are turned at intervals, and when ready are 
packed in twenty-five-pound boxes without any great care or skill. The 



38 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY.- 

best Huasco raisin sells at fifty cents per pound in the local market, 
and is decidedly the most high-priced raisin known. The best variety 
is scarce even in Chile, and in Chilean statistics I could not find any 
quoted. The following houses in Huasco are dealers in fruits and 
raisins: Juan Quijada, Ramon F. Martinez, and Jose Manuel Balma- 
ceda. The export from the port of Huasco in 1885 amounted only to 
$685,853. How large a portion of this was raisins is not known. 

CALIFORNIA RAISIN DISTRICTS. 



A GENERAIv REVIEW. 

Early History. — ^While the planting of raisin grapes and the produc- 
tion of raisins in California dates back some thirty odd years, the raisin 
industry cannot be said to be as yet twenty years old. Alreadj'-, in 
1 85 1, Col. Agoston Haraszthy grew Muscatel vines from seeds of 
Malaga raisins. On the 25th of March, 1852, he imported the Muscat 
of Alexandria from Malaga, and ten years later, during a visit to that 
place on September 27, 1861, he selected cuttings of the Gordo Blanco 
which afterwards were grown and propagated on his San Diego county 
vineyard. The same year he imported Sultana vines from Malaga, and 
white and red Corinth from Crimea. Col. Haraszthy was thus the first 
one to introduce the raisin-vines in this State. Another importation of 
the ovoid Muscat of Alexandria was made in 1855 by A. Delmas and 
planted at San Jose, according to a statement made by his son D, M. 
Delmas,'*^ the prominent San Francisco lawyer. G. G. Briggs of 
Davisville also imported Muscatel grapes from Malaga in Spain; while 
R. B. Blowers of Woodland, Yolo county, started his raisin vineyard 
in 1863 from Gordo Blanco cuttings received from Col. Haraszthy. 
In 1876, W. S. Chapman, imported the best Muscatels from Spain for 
his colonists in the Central California Colony in Fresno, which proved in 
no way difierent from those already growing there. Who produced the 
first raisins in California will probably never be satisfactorily known. 
According to page 88 of the Report of the State Agricultural Society 
of California, 1863, cured raisins were exhibited by Dr. J. Strentzel at 
the State Fair in 1863.! The first successful raisin vineyards in the 
State were those planted by G. G. Briggs at Davisville in Solano 
county, and by R. B, Blowers at Woodland in Yolo county. Both 
these gentlemen grew the raisin grapes on a large scale, and shipped 
raisins extensively. The Briggs vineyard consisted mainly of Muscats 
of Alexandria, while the Blowers vineyard contained the Gordo 
Blanco. Both these vineyards produced raisins as early as 1867; but 
it was not until 1873 th^l" their raisins cut any conspicuous figure in the 
market. That year si ^ tnousand boxes were produced in the State, the 
majority by far coming from these two vineyards. 

Later Planting. — In 1873, i^ the fall, the Muscat vines were first 
brought to the Fresno raisin district, where twenty-five acres of Muscat 
of Alexandria were planted in the Eisen vineyard. A few years later, 
or in 1876 and 1S77, T. C. White planted the Raisina Vineyard in the 
Central California Colony near Fresno from Gordo Blanco Muscatels 

* See also Wickson's "California Fruits," page 357. t Same, page 79. 



% 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 39 

brought from R. B. Blowers' vineyard at Woodland. The following 
year, or in 1877-78, Miss M. F. Austin began improving her Hedgerow 
Vineyard, also in the same colony, with grapes of the same kind as 
Messrs. White and Bowers. Robert Barton had also planted some 
twenty-five acres of Muscat grapes, but did not make raisins until 
later. The year 1879 saw the first planting of the A. B. Butler vine- 
yard, now the largest vineyard in the State. J. T. Goodman had 
began improving his place at the same time; While Col. William For- 
syth entered upon raisin-grape growing between 1881 and 1882, most 
of his grapes, however, being planted a year or two later. From that 
time the raisin vineyards in Fresno multiplied rapidly, and about 1886 
and 1887 raisin production became recognized as the principal industry 
of the district. 

The history of the development of the raisin industry in the other 
districts of the State runs very much the same. Riverside had entered 
the field in 1873, when the founder of that colony, Judge John Wesley 
North, planted there the first raisin-vines of the variety Muscat of 
Alexandria. But raisin-grape growing did not become general until 
1875 and 1876, when the largest vineyards in the colony were planted. 
In Kl Cajon valley in San Diego county, the first raisin vines of the 
Muscat of Alexandria variety were planted in 1873 by R. G. Clark; but 
the raisin industry did not get a good start until some six or seven 
years ago, while most of the vineyards were planted from 1884 to 1886. 
In Orange county, raisin grapes were planted at the same time as in 
Riverside and El Cajon by MacPherson Bros., near Orange, now called 
MacPherson. The raisin industry developed rapidly, and Robert Mac- 
Pherson, the largest grower and packer in the district, and at one time 
in the State, handled yearly over one hundred thousand boxes, while 
the yearly crop of the district rose to one hundred and seventy thousand 
boxes. 

In Central California, the raisin industry is gradually spreading from 
the original center around Fresno, the greater freedom from rain and 
the better facilities for irrigation being great inducements for the set- 
tlers to engage in the growing and curing of the raisin grapes. The 
San Joaquin valley is expecially adapted to the production of raisins, 
the Fresno raisin district being by far the largest, and now producing 
almost one-half of the raisin crop of the State. In San Bernardino 
county and district, the raisins are also grown to great profit and with 
great facility, and are of equal quality with those of the interior of the 
State. But the raisin industry is here gradually giving way to the 
culture of oranges and other citrus fruits, and the increase in the raisin 
acreage has therefore not been so great as in the San Joaquin valley. 
In El Cajon, irrigation is not used, and the raisins produced there are 
very similar to the Malaga raisins, but through absence of irrigation 
the crops are smaller than in any of the other districts in the State. 
In Los Angeles and Orange county district, the raisin industry has 
suffered immensely from the ravages of the vine plague, an as yet 
entirely mysterious disease, and the output of raisins there has dwin- 
dled down to almost nothing. But the farmers of the district are ready 
to replant whenever there are any prospects that the vines will do well 
again. 



40 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

In the interior of California, north of Solano and Yolo counties, large 
quantities of raisin grapes have been planted during the last few years, 
both in the foothill valleys, out on the plains, and in the bottom lands 
of the Sacramento, Yuba and Feather rivers, etc. Raisins of very good 
quality have been produced in that part of the State for years in 
limited quantities, but it is yet a question to what extent that section 
can compete with the central and southern parts of the State. In Sut- 
ter county around Yuba City the cultivation of a seedless raisin grape 
is advancing rapidly, the raisins made from it being of excellent 
quality and finding a ready market. 

Acreage and Crops. — The quantity of raisin-vines planted cannot 
be estimated correctly; but it is certain that at least sixty -five thousand 
acres of Muscat vines are now set out in the State, including grapes in 
bearing, as well as vines lately set out. 

California enjoys a climate peculiarly adapted to the culture and 
curing of the raisin grape. The summers are warm and rainless, the 
winters again moderately rainy. The interior is free from injurious 
fogs and heavy dews, while the most southern coast is only visited 
by warm fogs, which are not greatly harmful to the grapes. Irrigation 
is practiced almost everywhere, except in El Cajon valley, and 
in some of the northern districts of the State, but even there it 
is no doubt that judicious irrigation would be beneficial and greatly 
increase the crop. The demand for California raisins has kept pace 
with the improvements in curing and packing, and has steadily 
increased from year to year. What the future has in store only the 
future can tell, but it is almost certain that first-class raisins will always 
be in demand, while inferior grades may from time to time bring lower 
prices. The ruling price of raisins in sweatboxes, as they may be 
had from those growers who do not pack themselves, has been from four 
to five cents per pound. Of late years, the tendency is developing to 
pay according to quality, and from three to seven cents was the ruling 
price for unpacked raisins in sweatboxes during last season (1889). 
This practice will greatly promote the raisin industry and encourage 
growers to grow large grapes and fine bunches, and to cure their raisins 
well. It will also benefit the buyers, who will know what they pay 
for, and who will be able to furnish better grades, and more of the best 
grades than formerly, when good, bad and indifferent raisins brought 
five cents per pound. 

The raisin crop of 1889 did not exceed one million boxes. Should 
we venture upon a statement as to the distribution of the same among 
the various counties or districts of the State, the following figures 
would be found as near correct as it is possible to get them: 

Fresno district 475,000 twenty-pound boxes. 

Tulare 15,000 

Kern 4,000 

Yolo and Solano 120,000 " " " 

Scattering 25,000 " " " 

San Bernardino 265,000 " " " 

Orange and lyos Angeles 8,000 " " " 

San Diego 75, 000 ' " " 

987,000 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 41 

YOLO AND SOLANO. 

Location and Acreage. — ^The district is situated north of San Fran- 
cisco Bay, bordering on it as well as on the Sacramento river, and is 
a part of the Sacramento valley. The number of acres overreaches 
seven thousand, and is increasing yearly. The principal vineyards are 
those of the late G. G. Briggs at Davisville, Solano county, with three 
hundred acres, and at Woodland in Yolo county, four hundred and sixty 
acres; E. Gould, also at Davisville, two hundred acres; H. M. 
Larou, at same place, about fifty acres; sundry vineyards around 
Davisville, fifty acres; around Woodland and Capay valley, some 
four hundred acres; — or in full bearing more than two thousand 
acres. The district comprises the southern part of Yolo and the 
northern part of Solano counties. The grape used for raisins is 
principally the Muscat of Alexandria, except the vineyard of R. B. 
Blowers, which is composed exclusively of Gordo Blanco. The 
Muscat of Alexandria is generally preferred, as it makes a fine raisin 
and bears well. 

Soil a7id Climate. — The soil varies somewhat; the best is a deep gray, 
alluvial bottom-land soil; other soils are not much thought of for 
Muscatel raisin grapes. The average depth of water is about eighteen 
feet from the surface. It is not necessary, as a rule, to first level the 
land, as the ground is very level naturally. The rainfall averages 
thirteen inches. The most rain falls in January and February; the 
least falls in August. There is seldom a shower in the summer, but 
about November ist rains are almost always certain to interfere with 
the drying of the grapes. Sometimes the rain comes in October, when 
it causes considerable damage to the grapes and partially dried raisins. 
There is very little dew in summer time, but plenty in October and 
also some in September. The temperature is considerably modi- 
fied by the nearness of the bay. It reaches in the hottest part of 
the summer one hundred and fourteen degrees Fahrenheit in the 
shade, but only for a day or two. The average highest is about 
ninety degrees Fahrenheit in the shade, while the heat almost every 
day in July and August shows eighty-five degrees Fahrenheit in the 
shade. Thus this district is considerably cooler than the San Joaquin 
valley and San Bernardino county, but warmer than Los Angeles and 
San Diego districts. There are heavy frosts in winter, when at times 
even the thermometer falls to eighteen degrees Fahrenheit, although 
this is the extreme low temperature, six or seven degrees of frost being 
more common. There is spring frost in April one year in every three 
or four, and the vineyards are then smoked to prevent injury to the 
vines. Irrigation is not needed to produce crops, only to produce larger 
crops, as it increases the yield fifty per cent. Generally two irrigations 
a year are needed, the first one in early summer, the other later, when 
the berries have begun to ripen. Water from ditches is used and 
carried to the vines in furrows only, no flooding being practiced. 

The Vineyard. — In planting, cuttings are used principally, but 
rooted vines are preferred by some. The distances most common are 
ten by ten feet each way, one vineyard being set ten feet by sixteen 
feet. The vines bear the third year. The ground is plowed and 



42 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

cross-plowed, the first plowing being from the vines, and the second 
to the vines. Harrowing and cultivating both ways are secondary- 
operations, continued to the middle of Maj^ but seldom later. Hoeing 
the vines finishes the work of the soil in the middle or end of May. 

In pruning, the crowns are never raised over six inches above the 
ground, from seven to eight spurs are left on large vines, and each spur 
is pruned to two or three eyes each. Formerly more eyes, say from four 
to five, were left on each cane, but it was found that this was too 
many, hence the change to two or three eyes. Summer pruning is 
practiced by some, but not by all; there is yet a controversy in regard 
to its usefulness. When practiced, the vines are cut six or eight 
inches from the tops, and this is done not later than June. Sulphur- 
ing is in use everywhere; the vines are sulphured two times, once 
before and once after the bloom. Sulphured vines do not suffer from 
mildew. Colure, or the dropping of the young berries, is not com- 
mon, the Muscat of Alexandria even setting well. The leaf-hopper 
(^Erythroneura comes) is more common in some years than in others. 
They eat the leaves and cause the grapes to sunburn. Grasshoppers 
have never caused any damage. Grape moths are more or less com- 
mon, but never troublesome. Black-knot is often seen on neglected 
vines, but is rare in old vineyards well cared for. 

The Crop. — The grapes ripen in September, generally from the first 
to the tenth. The drying and curing occupies three weeks. The 
bunches are placed on trays made of pine two feet bj'^ three. Several 
growers have artificial dryers, which are needed for curing the second 
crop. The sweatboxes are large enough to contain seventy pounds of 
raisins, and are eight inches deep. In the Briggs raisin vine3^ard, 
the following brands are packed: three crown Layer Muscatels; two 
crown Layer Muscatels; one and two crown Loose Muscatels; Dehesas 
and Seedless Muscatels. The raisins are seldom sold in sweatboxes, 
and no fixed price is known for such raisins. Most growers pack their 
own raisins. The oldest raisin vineyard is that started by the late 
G. G. Briggs, and now owned by his widow. The most renowned 
vineyard was that owned by R. B. Blowers of Woodland, which has 
of late years been mostl}^ replaced by other crops. Raisin land can 
be had for from one hundred to one hundred and fifty dollars per 
acre. This is vacant land of the very best quality. An average 
profit of fifty dollars per acre is realized, although some have made 
more money out of their vines. A yield of two or three tons of grapes 
per acre is common. As regards prices of labor, etc., the following 
were those most common last season: Man and team, who boards 
himself and animals, three dollars and twenty-five cents per day, can 
plow one and a half acres of vineyard well. Pruning, one man, one 
dollar per day, can prune three hundred vines, or three-fourths of 
an acre. Laborers generally board themselves. The raisins of this 
district were the first ones in the State or on this continent to attract 
attention, and they were the first which successfully competed with 
Spain. The crop of 1889 reached one hundred and twenty thousand 
boxes. 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 43 

NORTHERN CALIFORNIA. 

Ge?ieral Remarks. — The Muscatel and Sultana raisin grapes grow 
almost everywhere in the State, and it is therefore natural enough that 
the planting of raisin-vines should have increased considerably of late 
years, even in localites situated outside of those raisin districts men- 
tioned, which have already made a success of the raisin industry. 
Below will be found a few notices from various such places which 
aspire to raisin fame, some of which have yet to make their reputation 
in this line. These notices are partly taken from the San Francisco 
Chro7iicle, which paper went to the trouble and expense of collecting 
such statistics at the beginning of the year. It must be remembered, 
however, that these statements are more or less approximate. As will 
be seen, all these localities here mentioned lie in the interior or the 
Sacramento valley proper, enjoying an inland climate. The climate 
in this valley is somev,'hat like that of the San Joaquin valley, of 
which it is an extension. Only the heat in summer is less, the rain 
in winter is more profuse, the showers in the spring of the year are 
later and those of the fall are earlier. 

Placer County. — At Rocklin J. P. Whitney has two hundred and fifty 
acres of raisin grapes, and is the largest raisin-maker in the county. 
There are not over three hundred and fifty acres of Muscats devoted to 
raisin-making in the county, and the total output this year was about 
four hundred tons, most of which was shipped directly East. The 
first carload of Muscat raisins sent East was shipped from the 
Whitney vineyard about ten years ago. A large area of Muscat and 
other vineyards will be planted this season, but none for raisin- 
making. 

Yuba County. — The raisin industry has received but little attention 
in Yuba county, although it has long been known that raisins of 
superior quality can be produced here. The area in raisin-vines is 
about three hundred acres, which will probably be increased by sev- 
eral hundred acres this season. I,ess than a hundred acres are in 
bearing. The raisin vineyards planted last season are chiefly at 
Colmena, midway between Marysville and Wheatland. The Muscatel 
grape is planted to some extent, but the favorite grape is the Thompson 
Seedless, a new variety of great promise. 

Sutter County. — The raisin industry of Sutter county dates back to 
the year 1876, and the venture was first made by the late Dr. S. R. 
Chandler three miles south of this city. The area now in raisin vine- 
yard is about six hundred acres, three-fourths of which are in bear- 
ing. The crops marketed and prices received are about as follows: 
Three thousand twenty-pound boxes at $1.65 per box; eight hundred 
sacks of one hundred pounds each, at five cents a pound; five hun- 
dred and twenty-five sacks of dried grapes of one hundred pounds 
each, at three cents a pound. The home consumption is extensive, 
but is not estimated. The county is well adapted to raisin growing 
and curing, and received the second prize at the late Oroville State 
Citrus Exposition. Muscatel and Thompson Seedless are the favorite 
grapes. The soil of this county is very rich and warm, and no irriga- 
tion has been practiced. 



44 • THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

Colusa County. — In the immediate vicinity of Colusa there are about 
one hundred and fifty acres in bearing, and fully one hundred acres 
more will be set out the coming season. The crop of raisins in 1888 
was very insignificant; but in 1889 the Colusa canneries packed forty 
tons in boxes. The prices ranged from $1.75 to $2.25 per box, accord- 
ing to quality. These figures refer only to the territory lying within 
a radius of eight miles of Colusa. Some of the finest raisin grapes 
in the county are grown near College City, and the entire output was 
at least eighty tons of raisins. Many of the people around Orland are 
reported as going into the business on a large scale. The ranchers in 
and near the foothills are also producing raisins of excellent quality. 
A single vineyard of fifteen hundred acres is being planted in one 
place in the foothills. 

Butte Coimty. — While Butte produces a fair quality of raisins, her 
vineyards are yet 3'oung and are just coming into bearing. The older 
vines are those of General Bidwell, at Chico, covering about one hun- 
dred acres, and those of Oroville and Mesilla valley, embracing about 
the same area. A large number of young vines have been set out 
during the past two years, and these number 52,200 near Oroville, 
77,480 at Palermo, 67,200 at Thermalito, 20,570 at Wyandotte, 25,000 
at Central House, 50,500 at Gridley, and something over 50,000 near 
Chico. These have nearly all been planted within the past two years, 
but a limited number are three years old. In the foothills are a num- 
ber of small vineyards, but it is impossible to ascertain the acreage 
and product, though the total of each is not large. Practically the 
bearing vines of Butte number between 300 and 400 acres. The one 
and two year old vineyards embrace about 350 acres, so that a con- 
servative estimate for the total raisin vineyards of the county, young 
and old, would be 700 acres. The raisins are all boxed and sold 
directly by the vineyardists, the local demand taking nearly the whole 
crop. The area to be planted this year will not exceed 250 acres. 

Tehama Cou7ity. — The area planted to grapes in Tehama county is 
over ten thousand acres. The greater part of the fruit grown is used 
for wine, and probably one- third for raisins. All the raisins produced 
here are packed in boxes, and a large portion is used in home con- 
sumption, while the remainder is shipped. Probably about ten thou- 
sand boxes in bulk and packed will cover the yield. 

Shasta County. — The raisin industry of Shasta county is only in its 
infancy. There are 147 acres planted to raisin grapes within a radius 
of fifteen miles from Redding. The largest acreage of raisin grapes 
is in Happy valley. There are patches of grapes all through the foot- 
hills. Probably not over one thousand boxes of raisins were shipped. 
The planting of raisin grapes continues every year. Raisins are made 
by many small growers, and sold here at an average of six cents per 
pound. 

FRESNO AND SAN JOAQUIN VAI^LEY. 

General Remarks. — The San Joaquin valley is well adapted to 
raisins along its whole length almost, but especially in its central and 
southern parts. The farther we go south in the valley, the drier is the 
climate, and the less is the rainfall in the autumn of the year, both 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 45 

conditions favoring the curing of the grapes. The present raisin 
center is around Fresno City, where over twenty-five thousand acres 
are planted to raisin grapes, principally Muscatels; but from this 
locality the industry has been constantly spreading, until at present the 
other counties in the valley, viz., Merced, Tulare and Kern, can show a 
good acreage of young vines. Next after Fresno, Tulare county 
produces the largest quantity of raisin grapes, and produces raisins 
of the very highest quality. The principal raisin vineyards in that 
county are situated in the Mussel Slough district, on the rich bottom 
lands formed by the former delta of Kings river; of late, the planting 
of raisin grapes has extended to other parts of the county as well. In 
Kern county few old raisin vineyards exist, the oldest one being situar 
ted on the Livermore ranch, being a part of the Haggin and Carr tract. 
Several hundred new acres have been planted there this spring, especi- 
ally in the Rosedale, Lerdo and Virginia Colonies, as well as on the 
plains near Delano. I need here hardly say that the raisins of Fresno, 
Tulare, Kern and Merced counties should be all classed together, as the 
climate in these various localities is one and the same, with only a slight 
and gradual change as to rainfall as we go south in the valley. If there 
will, in the course of time, be found some difference as regards quality 
in the raisins of these various localities in the San Joaquin valley, this 
difference will not be due to any great difference in the climate, but to 
the variety of soil on which the grapes are grown. The raisins are only 
grown on the level lands, situated from three to four hundred feet above 
the sea. 

Extent and Location. — The Fresno district contains about thirty 
thousand acres, out of which about twelve thousand are in good or full 
bearing. Merced county has about two thousand acres, nearly all very 
young vines. Kern county has probably about one thousand acres, 
also very young vines, and some thirty acres of old vines. Tulare 
county has about seven thousand acres of Muscats, a large part of which 
is in full or good bearing. Many vineyards, large and small, are being 
planted in these counties this year, but enough attention is not paid 
to proper soil and to locality, and here, as elsewhere in the State, many 
of these vineyards will not turn out as the owners expect they will. 
In Fresno county, the old vineyards are planted principally around 
Fresno City, while in late years other raisin districts or sub-districts are 
growing into prominence around Malaga, Sanger, Selma, Fowler and 
Madera. The varieties used are principally the Gordo Blanco Musca- 
tel, much mixed with the Muscat of Alexandria. There are some few 
acres of Sultanas and White Corinths, and of late many Malagas 
have been planted. 

Soils and Climate. — There are several different varieties of soils in the 
district, — the red or chocolate-colored sandy loam principally east of 
the railroad, the white, ashy soil west of the railroad, and the very 
sandy soil, generally occurring in elevated ridges. We have also the 
deep, gray -colored bottom land in the river bottoms or along the rivers 
and creeks. The best grades of the chocolate and reddish loams, 
and of the river bottom soil, is considered the best for raisins. The 
very sandy soil and the alkali soil should not be used for raisin 



46 THE RAISIN INPUSTRY. 

purposes. The climate is warm and dry during the summer, while the 
winters are not very rainy. From seven to ten inches of rain are an 
average in Fresno; south to Kern the rainfall decreases, five and 
a half inches being an av^erage around Delano. Towards the northern 
end of the valley, the rainfall increases, and in Merced county varies 
between ten and twenty inches, fifteen inches being a high average. 
In no portion of the raisin-producing portion of the valley can raisin 
grapes be grown without irrigation, the natural rainfall being entirely 
insufficient. The lowest temperature is about eighteen degrees Fahren- 
heit in Fresno, generally in January, while the highest is one hundred 
and eighteen degrees Fahrenheit in the shade in July and August. The 
lowest temperature is reached once in from three to five years, and the 
highest quoted is similarly scarce. The high average in summer 
time is one hundred and ten in the shade, and for three months of the 
year the thermometer every day can be counted on to vary between one 
hundred and one hundred and ten in the shade. In the winter, 
twenty degrees Fahrenheit is often reached, and the end of December 
and January may be counted on as being cold and frosty. These 
figures all refer to the level plain land, where the most of the vineyards 
are planted, and not to the foothills or the thermal belt, nor to the 
high Sierra Nevada, where snow and ice are common, and where 
glaciers cover many of the highest mountain peaks. The most rainfall 
occurs from December to February, and the rain continues more or 
less scattering to April and May. There is only very seldom a shower 
in the summer, one perhaps in three years. In the mountains, the fall 
rains commence about the middle of August, on the plains again in 
October and November, sometimes even later. Dew is rare in summer 
time, but common from the beginning of October. Fog is rare, some- 
times an unwelcome visitor in November, but never known at any 
other time of the year. Spring frosts are almost unknown, and occur 
only once in from five to eight years. 

Irrigation. — Irrigation is practiced wherever raisins are grown. The 
water is taken from the rivers, — from Kings river in the Fresno 
district, and from the Merced, Kaweah and Kern rivers, etc., in the 
other districts. Before irrigation was begun in the Fresno districts, 
there were from fifty to sixty feet of dry soil before the natural water 
level was reached; but this has been so changed through a few 
years of constant irrigation, that now in places the land is subirrigated 
or moist to the surface, while in places even the soil requires to be 
drained, and no other irrigation is now needed except to allow the 
water to flow in the main or secondary canals, from which it seeps and 
keeps the soil filled with water, the moisture rising from below. The 
irrigation when practiced is done by flooding or by irrigating in furrows. 
New land must be irrigated until it becomes subirrigated; but, when 
once this is done, no separate irrigation becomes necessary. Many 
vineyards planted on subirrigated land which was once dry land have 
never since been irrigated. 

The Vineyard. — The general distance of the vines is eight by 
eight or ten by ten feet, varying in difierent vineyards. Of late, there 
have been some efforts made to improve upon these distances, and to 



THS RAISIN INDUSTRY. 47 

have them planted closer one way than the other, say five by ten or six 
by twelve feet. The vines begin to bear the second and third years, 
and if planted on proper soil should pay the fourth year and give 
an income the fifth year. Some vines have been known to pay the 
third year, there being much difference in this respect. Both cuttings 
and rooted vines are used, rooted vines having been preferred during 
the last few years. The ground is plowed in various ways in the 
winter time, according to the ideas of the owner. Cross-plowing is 
sometimes practiced. The general rule is to first plow one way, and 
then to cross-cultivate repeatedly until the soil is level and the weeds 
are destroyed. In wet places, the cultivation is kept up until July, but 
in proper places the working of the soil is finished in the early part of 
June. 

Pruning and Other Operations. — The heads of the vines are kept 
low, — from six to sixteen inches above the ground. The canes are cut 
to two or three eyes, and the number of canes left vary from five to 
fifteen or more. The pruning is done between December and February. 
Summer pruning is practiced by some, but not by all growers, there 
being considerable difference of opinion as to the value of this opera- 
tion. Sulphuring is practiced by all growers, some sulphuring only 
once, but the best vineyards are sulphured three or more times. 
Oidium or mildew never appears in sulphured vineyards. Some few 
growers sulphur with great success against the colure or dropping of 
the grapes. Leaf-hoppers are common, but do no great harm. Grass- 
hoppers and grape caterpillars were troublesome one or two seasons, but 
have not reappeared of late. Black-knot is common in many places. 

The Crop. — The grapes begin to ripen in the middle of August, or 
from the middle of August to the first of September, and at the latter 
date the first boxes of cured and packed raisins are generally heralded 
through the press. The first grapes dry in from seven to ten days, but 
the later grapes require three weeks or more. The drying continues 
through September, and for the second crop through October and even 
in November, or until the rains set in. The grapes are dried on trays 
two by three or three by three feet. The sweatboxes are generally two 
by three feet and from six to eight inches high. A large number of 
brands are packed, such as Imperial Clusters, Dehesas, Layers, Loose 
and Seedless. The common price for raisins in sweatboxes is from three 
and a half to six cents, five and five and a half cents being the average 
for good layers. Good land for raisin purposes can be had for one hun- 
dred dollars per acre, but nearer the town of Fresno is held higher. 
Bearing raisin vineyards have changed hands at as high as $i,ooo per 
acre. From one hundred to two hundred and fifty boxes of raisins are 
realized per acre, and the profits vary from sevent3'-five to two hundred 
and fifty dollars per acre, according to location, soil, management, etc. 
From thirty to fifty dollars per acre is spent yearly in many vineyards. 
Few dipped raisins are produced. Some dipped Sultanas have brought 
seven cents in the San Francisco market. Last season about four hun- 
dred and seventy-five thousand boxes were produced in the Fresno 
district, and some twenty thousand boxes more in the other parts of 
the San Joaquin valley. 



48 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

SAN BERNARDINO COUNTY AND RIVERSIDE. 

Locatio7i and Acreage. — San Bernardino county, California, is entirely 
an inland county, sheltered by low and high hills from the ocean. 
Fogs and dew are rare, in places unknown, and the county offers 
unusual advantages for raisin-growing. The vineyards are widely 
distributed through the county in different localities or raisin centers, 
all of which are greatly similar as to climatic conditions, except as 
regards altitude. The San Bernardino vineyards are the highest 
elevated above the sea of any in California. Below will be found a list 
of the raisin centers in the county, with the number of acres and their 
altitude above the sea. It must be understood that each locality has a 
large extension as regards altitude, and varies in many instances several 
hundred feet; this fact being indeed a characteristic of the San Bernar- 
dino county vineyards. The raisin centers in San Bernardino county 
are: 

Riverside, 1,500 acres. Altitude above sea, 900 to 1,000 feet, 

Redlands, 800 " " " "1,200 " 1,600 feet. 

Highlands, 400 " " " " 1,500 feet. 

Ontario, 500 " " " " 983 " 2,350 feet. 

Cucamonga, " " " " 900 " 1,500 teet. 

Etiwanda, 700 " " " '' 1,200 feet. 

There are several other localities where raisin vineyards are found in 
smaller quantities, and it is safe to estimate the number of acres in the 
county at over five thousand. Nearly all these vineyards are situated 
on mesa lands, by which is meant the lands situated between the river 
bottoms and the foothills. As a consequence, the surface water is never 
near the top, but generally far down.and even continued irrigation would 
not be liable to raise it much higher, as the water will as rapidly drain 
off through the substrata, which generally consists of sandy soil and 
gravel. The land is in fact well drained, and differs in this respect from 
the plains of the San Joaquin valley. In Riverside, the surface water 
is from thirty to fifty feet down, and only in one or two vineyards 
situated deep down in the array is the surface water as shallow as ten 
feet. These latter vineyards are never irrigated. In Redlands the 
surface water is at an average of thirty feet on the mesa lands. In 
Ontario the surface water is even deeper, and found at from seventy to 
eight hundred feet, and the shallowest water in the district is, according 
to Mr. W. E. Collins, twenty-five feet below the surface. It is the 
general belief in the San Bernardino district that deep water is nec- 
essary for, or at least beneficial to, raisin grapes, and that shallow 
surface water is conducive to all kinds of diseases. In this I cannot 
agree, as contrary to my own experiences and to the experiences of 
the Spanish growers. 

Climate. — As regards temperature, there is some difference in the 
various districts. A true comparison between them and other districts 
is almost impossible, as the signal service thermometers are placed at 
unequal heights above the ground, and in localities with very different 
characteristics. It can, however, be said that the winter climate of 
the district is much milder during the winter than that of the plains of 
the San Joaquin valley, and very similar to the Orange county and 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 49 

the San Diego districts. In Riverside and Redlands, the thermometer 
seldom reaches one hundred and nine degrees Fahrenheit in the shade 
during the summer, and in winter seldom goes below twenty-four 
degrees Fahrenheit, while twenty-eight or twenty-seven degrees Fahren- 
heit i.j no unusual occurrence once every year, but is considered the 
extreme of the season. It may thus be seen that raisin vineyards and 
orange orchards may be and actually are grown side by side in every 
part of San Bernardino county, and this is a distinct characteristic 
of the district, which, however, it shares with Orange and San Diego 
counties. The warmest months are August and September, and 
October is generally fine for drying. So is November, and only twice 
(in 1885 and 1889) has there been any serious difficulty in drying the 
grapes. In two other years the crop has suffered slightly, but during the 
majority of seasons in the months of November there has not been any 
rain on the mesa lands, and it is this absence of fall rains which makes 
it possible for the raisin-grower to dry his crop without any other 
appliances than raisin-trays. Dew and fogs are very rare, and occur 
only very seldom during the summer months. When they do occur 
at this time, they are of but short duration, and last perhaps only 
from five to seven o'cloc'z in the morning. In the fall of the year, in 
October and November, the desert wind blows warm and dry, and 
hastens the drying of the raisins. It may blow three or four 
times during the season, but has also been known to be entirely 
absent. The rain in the winter season is light, in Riverside twelve 
inches being an exceptionally wet season. From six to eight inches 
are the usual rainfall, while again the actual average for Riverside is 
six and one-fourth inches. In Ontario the rainfall in 1887 was 8.21 
inches, and in 1888 9.23 inches. 

Irrigation. — In Riverside grapes cannot be grown without irrigation 
on the mesa lands, with the exception of one or two localities in the 
arroyo. In the Ontario district, raisin grapes may be grown without 
irrigation in the center of the valley, but on the mesas, higher on the 
sides, they must be irrigated, and even in localities where they could 
be grown without artificial irrigation the same is always practiced 
whenever it can be obtained. Less water is, however, needed than 
in the San Joaquin valley, but more than would suffice in El Cajon. 
Through the nature of the gravelly subsoil, the raisin land cannot fill 
up with water. Seepage is only possible to a limited degree; summer 
irrigation is always required. The vines are irrigated three times a 
year, in April, June and August. The system of furrows is used, and 
a ten-inch flow is considered enough to irrigate one acre of grapes 
during one day and night each time. In Ontario the raisin grapes are 
irrigated every five weeks, not, however, while they are in bloom, as 
it is considered best to wait until the berries are well set. In Redlands, 
one irrigation after the winter rain ceases is considered enough, even 
on soil with thirty feet to water. 

Soils. — The soil in San Bernardino county varies considerably. 
In Riverside and Redlands the best soil is a reddish loam, with some 
sand and gravel. But in Riverside we also find sandy soil of lighter 
color and strength, which, however, is less suited to grapes. In 



50 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY, 

Ontario the soil varies from a heavy clayey adobe to a lighter but very 
rich sandy loam of a grayish color. The very sandy soil in some 
river bottoms, especially around I^ugonia, has, through experience, 
been found to be entirely unsuited to the raisin grapes. 

The Vmeyards. — The variety used for raisins is nearly entirely the 
Muscat of Alexandria, although several vineyardists call these grapes 
incorrectly the Gordo Blanco. I saw nowhere this variety, but I 
suppose some must have been imported there. In planting, cuttings 
have been preferred, probably because they are the cheapest, and 
because the value of rooted vines has not been properly understood. 
The vines are set, almost everywhere, eight by eight, only in a few 
vineyards nine by nine feet. There is, however, a growing belief 
that eight by ten feet or eight by twelve feet is better than the old 
accepted eight by eight feet. But I believe that this tendency to give 
the vines greater room will, in course of time, be followed by the 
opposite tendency to plant them closer, at least one way, and give 
more room the other way. The Muscat of Alexandria begins to bear 
in three years, and in four years will pay fifty dollars per acre. The 
practice of plowing is, in Riverside, to first plow towards the vines in 
the fall, and then, when the vegetation has begun in the spring, the 
soil is turned back towards the center of the space between the rows, 
or from the vines. Then the soil is cultivated with chisel-tooth 
cultivators, both crosswise and lengthwise, also similarly after every 
irrigation. But this practice is not entirely the same everywhere, and 
the different vineyardists have here as elsewhere different ideas, even 
in regard to the most common farm or vineyard practices. Pruning 
was formerly done much closer than now, but it was found that by 
close pruning the vines bore less. To-day from fifteen to twenty spurs 
are left on the strongest vines, and on every spur about two eyes. 
From twenty to twenty-five spurs were found to be too much; with 
such quantity of spurs the vines produce smaller and inferior grapes. 
Some vines which were pruned with twenty-five spurs last year have 
this year been given nine or ten spurs only, so as to enable them again 
to recover and grow strong, when the quantity of spurs will again be 
increased to fifteen. Summer pruning is used by some, but not by 
others. It does not, according to observation, injure the vine, but 
produces always a second crop, which is diflScult to cure. Sulphuring 
the vines is practiced by some, but not by all, growers. A great many 
cannot see the use and value of sulphur. No one sulphurs for colure 
or the dropping of the grape, which is quite a common occurrence. 
The vines, however, never suffered from the leaf-hopper nor the grape 
caterpillars, but sunscald is not uncommon, nor is black-knot. 

The Crop. — The Muscat grapes begin to ripen in Riverside later 
than in the San Joaquin valley, and picking commences between the 
loth and the 30th of September. Highlands is said to be two weeks 
later than Riverside. The first crop is ready to turn in two weeks, 
and is ready for the sweatbox in three weeks' time. For drying, trays 
are used, and about twenty pounds are placed on each tray. These 
trays are all made of pine or fir. Redwood has been found unsuitable, 
as imparting both a color and a taste to the raisins if accidentally wet 



the; raisin industry. 61 

by early showers in the fall. Size of tra5's, two by three feet, with a 
cleat nailed at the short ends, but none at the long ends of the trays. 
Sweatboxes receive the raisins when they leave the trays. Formerly 
the sweatboxes were much larger and deeper than now, eight or even 
twelve inches in depth not being unknown. Of late sweatboxes are 
made two by three feet, or of the exact size of the trays, and not over 
six inches in depth. A greater depth makes the boxes too heavy to 
handle, and also causes the bunches to break. The packing of the 
raisins in Riverside and in the Southern California raisin districts 
generally is done by the method known as "top up." That is, the 
first raisins are placed in the bottom of the box and successive layers 
are placed on top, until finally the top layer is put on the last. The 
lever press for the compression of the layers is a Riverside invention. 
A modification of this press is now in use in nearly all districts where 
the "top-up" method of packing is practiced. The brands packed 
are as follows: Three Crown London Layers, Two Crown London 
Layers, Three Crown Loose Muscatels, Two Crown Loose Muscatels, 
and Muscatels in sixty-pound sacks; also Seedless Muscatels in sacks 
of sixty and thirty pounds respectively. Cotton sacks are commonly 
used for the two latter brands. The brands are apt to vary from year 
to year, according to the /ancy or ideas of the packers, new ones of 
which are in the field every year. Only those who both produce and 
pack have anything like established brands. The prices paid for 
raisins in sweatboxes have varied in difierent years. In 1887 ^-^^ 1888, 
the price was from four and one-half to five cents per pound. In 1889, 
the price rose to five and five and three-fourths cents, and in one or two 
instances six cents were paid. 

The Profits and Other Items. — The profit varies, of course, greatly, 
but an average profit may be considered to be from about $125 to $150 
per acre. The yield of an acre is variable, but from eight to ten tons of 
fresh grapes is said not to have been uncommon. In some cases the yield 
has been much higher and the profit larger. I have from trustworthy 
source the statement that one vineyardist who owns only a few acres, 
I believe only five, and who has given all his time and attention to 
these vines, has realized as much as $430 per acre. This I quote only 
as an instance of what might be done with care and expense in an 
exceptionally favored locality. Some few growers have realized $250 
profit on each of a few acres, which also is to be considered excep- 
tional. I believe my former statement of $150 per acre as being 
reliable and attainable by all San Bernardino county raisin-growers 
who have good land, and who give their vines sufficient care. As 
another instance of a high yield, I copy below an account of the 
vintage of C. Newton Ross of Etiwanda, San Bernardino county, Cali- 
fornia. The article appeared in the Press and Horticulturist of Riverside, 
September 27th, and I have every reason to consider it trustworthy. 
The writer adds that the yield is extraordinary. "Mr. Ross has 
seventeen acres of 8,000 vines five years old from which he picked 
8,648 trays of grapes that average twenty-five pounds to the tray, 
or a total of 108 tons of grapes, which will make thirty-six tons of 
raisins, — equal to 3,600 boxes, — over 200 boxes to the acre. This is 



52 the; raisin industry. 

the first picking only, and it is estimated that the second crop will be 
half as large as the first, which will give a total yield of' 31 8 boxes to 
the acre. Mr. Ross has sold his first crop at five and one-half cents p^r 
pound in the sweatbox, which will give him an income of $242 an 
acre on the first crop, and half as much more on the second crop if he 
succeeds in saving it in good shape, or a total income of $363 per acre 
on his crop. Mr. Ross estimates that $50 an acre will cover the entire 
cost of taking care of the vineyard and putting the crop in the sweat- 
box, and this would leave him a net income of $313 an acre for his 
vineyard, which is ten per cent on $3,130 per acre." But, I may add, 
it is not likely that such a profit can be realized year after year. 

As regards care of the vineyard and expenses of running the same, 
they vary, of course, and are estimated at from twenty dollars 
upwards. But the best vineyardists spend from thirty to forty dollars 
per acre in the care of an acre, but in this do not include interest, 
trays bought, etc., nothing in fact but " care." 

Vines were first planted in Riverside by Judge John Wesley North 
in 1873. Vacant land that is suitable for raisins may be had with 
water for $250 per acre. Some land with choice locations is held at 
higher prices. The highest yield of raisins in San Bernardino has 
been 290,000 boxes in 1888. Of this Riverside produced 150,000 boxes, 
Etiwanda 30,000 boxes, and Ontario 15,000 boxes. The raisin shipments 
from Riverside during the fall of 1889, up to December 12th, amounted, 
according to the Daily Press, to 216,000 boxes. There was a balance 
on hand of 7,000 boxes, making the total production 223,000 boxes. 
It is estimated that the value of this crop was $3,500,000 at wholesale. 
Later advices give to the county 265,000 boxes as last season's crop. 
The San Bernardino raisins are superior both as regards quality and 
size, and raisin growing and curing is a profitable business, eminently 
suited to the settler with small means, who cannot invest large capital, 
nor can afford to wait long for a return. No dipped or sulphured 
raisins have ever been produced in the district, although dipped raisins 
would prove profitable. Especially does this refer to the second crop, 
which ripens enough to make good raisins, but which cannot be cured 
when the early rains set in. 

ORANGE COUNTY AND SANTA ANA. 

General Remarks. — On account of the vine disease which has been 
injuring the Orange county raisin and wine vineyards, this district has 
a special interest to every one engaged in grape-growing. While the 
country has received a hard blow through the injury and destruction 
of so many of its vineyards, still it is likely that it will recover and 
rise as soon as the vine disease leaves. 

Location. — The Orange county raisin district lies close to the sea. 
Of all raisin districts, it is nearest the ocean, the average distance of 
the raisin vineyards from the latter being eight to twelve miles, some 
few perhaps a Httle more. As will be seen, the district resembles in 
this respect some of the Mediterranean districts, such as Malaga and 
Smyrna, where the vineyards come within actual reach of the sea 
fogs. On one side of the Orange county district we have the ocean, 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 53 

on the opposite side it is bordered by rather high foothills, beyond 
which are the San Bernardino county vineyards, some forty to sixty 
miles away. 

Climate. — The nearness to the ocean modifies the climate much. 
The temperature is more even all the year round than anywhere else 
on the coast where raisins are grown. The extreme of heat is 105 
degrees; in fact, July 27, 1889, it was 104 degrees Fahrenheit in the 
shade, while in the winter it seldom goes lower than 28 degrees 
Fahrenheit, and indeed very, very rarely as low as that. In many 
places there is no frost at all, except, perhaps, one in April, which, of 
course, cannot but prove damaging to the vines. This absence of 
heavy frost, which is beneficial to every other semi-tropical product, 
is not favorable to the vine. The grape requires heavy frost to become 
dormant. The farther south we go the less frost and the less grapes, 
at least of the Asiatic kind. There are, as we know, native grapes even 
in tropical countries, but they are adapted to their surroundings and 
cannot be considered here. The proximity to the coast modifies the 
air considerably. With 100 degrees Fahrenheit in the shade, which 
is an exception here, I felt as warm as I do in the San Joaquin valley 
with the mercury at 1 14; — the two extremes in both places affect us 
just the same. The air here is certainly much more moist, which again 
must have a marked effect upon the vine, and in no small degree 
promote fungoid growths, or parasites generally. In this respect, then, 
the coast vineyard must certainly be at a disadvantage. The fog is 
not an unusual visitor in the district between the coast and the foot- 
hills, which, in fact, covers the whole area ever planted in raisin 
grapes. For days in succession every morning is foggy, and the fog 
condenses on the leaves of the trees and falls under them in real 
showers, making the adjoining and underlying road wet. For a few 
days again the sun will rise bright, again to be followed by foggy 
mornings. By from nine to eleven o'clock the fog is again gone and 
the sun shines brightly. Every evening and morning there is a heavy 
dew, and every branch, leaf or grass is then dripping wet. Several 
mornings when the fog was in I found the thermometer at 62 degrees 
Fahrenheit, while at noon it rose to over 100. 

Soils and Ripening. — The soil here is the very best, and I doubt if the 
same fine quality of soil is found anywhere else in California over the 
same extended territory. I ride for miles and miles, everywhere the 
finest and richest loam of a gray color, sometimes a little drawing 
towards slate blue, sometimes again towards yellowish. It is immensely 
rich, and can hardly be improved. There is, however, especially near 
Orange, a different kind of soil consisting of the sand loam, but inter- 
mixed with very coarse gravel. This soil is warmer but consequently not 
so rich. The grapes ripen on it two weeks earlier, but yield only one- 
half as much as those on the richest loam along the creeks. The vines 
planted here were alone the Muscat of Alexandria. Strangely enough 
I find no traces of Sultanas or currant, which latter, it seems, should 
be especially adapted to the coast climate. 

The Vineyards. — In planting a vineyard, rooted vines were seldom 
used. Cuttings grew so readily and so well that they were much 



64 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

preferred. I am told that five per cent loss was unusual. It must be 
remarked that the moister is the air the better it is for any kind of 
cuttings. The moisture sustains and nourishes the wood while it is 
making roots. As to distances, I remarked nothing new. Eight by- 
eight or eight by ten feet seems the generally adopted way. The 
nature of the soil and climate make higher cultivation a necessity. 
McPherson Bros., who packed the largest quantity of raisins and 
owned the finest vineyards, told me that they plowed and cross- 
plowed and cultivated from fourteen to sixteen times every season; 
iti fact they never ceased working the ground. The pruning was 
begun in December, or as soon as the leaves began to turn and fall. 
To begin with, only a few spurs were left on every vine, and on every 
spur three eyes, including the bottom eyes, but experience taught that 
that way was not the very best. Gradually more space was given the 
vines, and now from fifteen to twenty spurs to a vine in full beating 
is considered proper. Summer pruning is only practiced in some of 
the vineyards where the ground is quite wet. The most profitable 
vineyards were irrigated. The nearer the coast the more moisture 
there is in the soil. Thus three miles west of Santa Ana the ground 
is always moist enough to grow grapes, but as we come nearer the 
foothills to the east, the moisture is farther down. At Tustin, Orange, 
and especially at McPherson, irrigation was practiced in all first-class 
vineyards. Some were irrigated in the winter only, and this was 
considered the best; others again were irrigated also once in summer, — 
a practice the best vineyardmen considered unnecessary and even 
injurious. I found land near the town of Santa Ana moist one inch 
below the surface, where no irrigation had even been practiced. 
Sulphuring was used everywhere to counteract the oidium. For this 
purpose powdered sulphur was dusted through the vines as soon as 
the grapes were as large as small shot. From three to four sulphur- 
ings were used every year with a week between each. Sulphuring 
for the colure or dropping of grapes was not known; in fact I am 
informed that this colure was seldom known. Besides mildew, there 
are few enemies to the vine here. Grasshoppers, leaf-hoppers and 
grape moths have never been known to molest the vines. When the 
late vine-plague struck the country the vineyardists were entirely 
unused to fight any enemy of the vines besides the oidium. Sunscald 
of the berries was not known. 

The Crop and its Ciiring. — The grapes begin to ripen in the end of 
August, say about the twenty-fifth, on the gravelly soil, but on the 
cooler and richer bottom land very much later, or about the middle 
of September. The harvest then begins; the grapes are picked on 
trays two and a half by three feet and placed to dry in the sun; the 
drying takes two or three weeks or more, and is accomplished with 
some difiiculty. Two years the grapes had to be carried out to the 
Mojave desert, to be dried there. The trays are placed among the 
vines in such a way that the tra5'S from three rows are placed in one. 
To protect them from the fog and dew, they are covered with canvas. 
This is done in two ways. One way is to put small pegs on one side 
of the trays. The long canvas is furnished at intervals with rings, 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 55 

which, are slipped over the pegs and thus held steady on one side. 
In the daytime the other end of the canvas is simply thrown back 
over the pegs; in the night-time the canvas is again turned over the 
trays, resting directly on the grapes. The other and better way is to 
run three wires along the row of trays, one on each side of the trays. 
The canvas is furnished with rings on each long side, which are made 
to run on the wire. The center wire is run a little higher up, and here 
and there simply supported by posts. It takes comparatively little 
time every evening to run the canvas along the wires and cover the 
trays. The expense is considerable, both in furnishing and preparing 
the canvas, and in maintaining and operating it. The peculiar climatic 
conditions of the district, however, necessitate some such contrivance 
for the drying of the grapes. The vines seldom bear a second crop of 
any importance. Sometimes in October the district is visited by a 
warm and dry desert wind called the Santa Ana wind. It comes 
from the caiion of the Santa Ana river, and originates, no doubt, in 
the Mojave desert, and rising high up in the air is again precipitated 
over the hills on the lowlands towards the ocean. This Santa Ana 
wind is always welcome. It hastens the drying of the grapes just as 
the Terral or land winds from the plains of lya Mancha hasten the 
drying of the grapes of Malaga in Spain. 

Yield a?id Profits. — The yield is quite small on the gravelly soil, at 
the most being three tons of green grapes to the acre, on richer land 
frow six to seven tons, and in rare instances ten tons to the acre. I 
heard of one vineyard where the owner had sold from twenty acres 
of Muscatels thirty-three tons of raisins and fifty-six tons of green 
grapes, equal to about 155 tons from the lot. Another lot of three- 
year Muscatels bore ten tons to the acre, — indeed a very unusual yield 
anywhere for Muscatels, I hear reports of some wonderful yields and 
high profits, but am informed by the most experienced and trust- 
worthy that $125 per acre is an average profit which can be relied 
upon year after year. The first Muscat vines were planted near 
Orange, now the station of McPherson, about 1873, by McPherson 
Bros. The acreage in grapevines in the Orange county district was 
about 8,000 acres; but probably over half of it is wine grapes. The 
highest output of raisins was 170,000 boxes of twenty-pounds each. 

SAN DIEGO AND EI. CAJON. 

Location and Acreage. — The El Cajon and Sweetwater valleys are 
the rasin centers of San Diego county. The former contains about 
four thousand acres of Muscat vines, the latter about five hundred 
acres. Magnificent-looking Muscat grapes are also grown wiihin 
three miles of San Diego. Escondido is by many pronounced superior 
for raisin grapes to any of the other places; but El Cajon is the present 
center of the raisin industry, and is likely to remain so for years. The 
raisin-growing section of the two valleys lies from about fifteen to 
seventeen miles from the coast line, and at an altitude of from 450 to 
500 feet. The arable land in El Cajon valley contains 50,000 acres, 
or perhaps less, and consists of the rolling bottom of the valley, but 
which can in no way be classed as bottom land. The land partakes 



66 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

more of the characteristics of mesa or upland, and extends on all 
sides, slightly undulating upon the sides of the hills. L,ower hills 
and behind them, again, higher hills surround the valley, and the 
high peaks beyond the Cuyamaca Mountains reach 4,500 feet or more. 
None of these hills or mountains in sight are covered with timber of 
any kind, and even the valleys are without the usual sycamores. Only 
in the very narrow bottom of the creek is there a vegetation of willows 
and shrubbery. 

Climate and Rainfall. — The rainfall of the valley varies considera- 
bly. It has been known to be as little as six inches and as much as 
twenty, the average probably being about twelve inches, distributed 
as generally elsewhere in California, — during the winter months. In 
summer time it seldom rains, — perhaps a shower in two or three years. 
September is the warmest month, or at least the month with the 
greatest number of warm days. The highest temperature reached in 
the shade in El Cajon is 105 degrees Fahrenheit, and in Sweetwater 
valley 108, and the coldest in the winter twenty-four degrees Fahren- 
heit on the upper mesa land, while on the lower land, close to the 
river, the temperature falls low enough to kill orange trees, probably 
somewhere about eighteen degrees Fahrenheit. September is freer 
from fog than any other month. During the other summer months 
there is fog in the morning two days out of three. The fog. however, 
is warm and f)leasant to all but consumptives, but, nevertheless, leaves 
behind a soaking dew on all vegetation, and is even heavy enough to 
moisten the dust on the roads. The moisture on this mesa land — by 
which is meant all the land between the hills, which are too steep 
to be plowed, and the actual river bottom lands — is near the surface. 
In the El Cajon and Sweetwater valleys, the water is found on this 
mesa at from eight to twenty feet, or at an average of from twelve to 
fifteen feet. On little hills or knobs in the valley the water is found 
at about the same depth. It is strange that with the water so near 
the surface no perennial vegetation of cither shrubbery or trees should 
be found on this land. The grapevines will grow on it without irriga- 
tion; in fact none is used anywhere now, but no doubt it would prove 
profitable to irrigate somewhat, so as to increase the crops of grapes. 
Water can be had through the Cuyamaca flume, but has so far not 
been used. The vines do not grow after August ist, and may stop 
growing sooner. 

Soils. — The soils of the district are of four kinds: First, reddish 
clay mixed with gravel, the color changing between light chocolate 
and deep reddish. This soil is considered by many the most desirable. 
Second, a steel or slate gray adobe with much gravel of a coarse 
nature. Third, black adobe with little gravel. Fourth, alluvial sandy 
soil, apparently consisting of decomposed granite mixed with much 
vegetable matter. This soil is coarse, of a dark steel-gray color, very 
easily worked; it is considered the best for raisins, but it contains 
streaks where they will not grow and prove profitable. The last- 
named soil goes gradually over into common alluvial soil of a sandy 
nature. The two last-named soils are found principally in the Sweet- 
water valley. 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 57 

The Vines and the Vineyard. — In planting, cuttings are generally 
used, not because they are most preferred, but because good rooted 
vines cannot be obtained. The distance to, and the difficulty of 
reaching, this district was formerly such that roots would suffer in 
transit and would rapidly dry, while cuttings could be had handy 
and fresh. The vines, originally planted eight by eight feet, have 
been given more distance of late, some vineyardists planting them eight 
by twelve feet, while others prefer twelve by twelve or ten by twelve 
feet. The varieties used are the Muscat of Alexandria only. This 
variety happened to be the one that was imported first from Riverside, 
I believe, and it was afterwards propagated by every one. The variety 
as grown in El Cajon is the type of Muscat of Alexandria with oblong 
berries, large clusters with loosely hanging berries and large strong 
stems. The shape of the vines is erect, with a few center shoots, 
strong and upright. The vines commence bearing the second year, 
and are said to pay expenses of caring for in the third year, but I 
think it would be safer to say in the fourth year. 

As regards cultivation and plowing, many plow both ways and 
harrow and cultivate crosswise several times until the ist of June, 
when, on account of the dryness of the soil, no more weeds start and 
no cultivation of any kind is needed. The large majority of the vine- 
yards are splendidly kept, not a weed being seen anywhere for miles 
around. Winter pruning commences as soon as the leaves fall. In 
former years from five to nine spurs were left in pruning and two or 
three eyes on each spur, but it has been found profitable and judicious 
to leave more spurs, so as to take the sap in the spring, and now from 
twelve to fifteen spurs with two or three eyes each are left every winter. 
Spring or summer pruning has only been practiced the last two 
seasons, and being found very profitable is now adopted by everybody. 
The vines are not pinched, but headed well back as soon as the grapes 
are well set. This method has in this district the following advantages: 
It gives better shade to the bunches on account of the production of a 
strong second growth; it causes the bunches to fill better, and, finally, 
it leaves more room between the rows of the vines. I was told that 
any of these three advantages would warrant the system of summer 
pruning to be generally adopted. The valley has been unusually free 
from any insect pest, such as leaf-hoppers (Erythroneura comes) cater- 
pillars, grasshoppers, etc., but suffers from mildew, not, however, to 
the extent that the presence of almost daily fogs would lead us to 
suppose. Sulphuring is now practiced to some extent, but not as 
much as it should be. The sulphur is applied with bellows as soon as 
the berries are the size of shot, but not before. Sulphuring for colure, 
or the dropping of the grapes when very small, is not practiced, nor 
was it ever suspected that it would help. Colure is quite common, 
much more so on sandy soil. Sunscald is frequent but not bad. I 
saw quite a number of grapes scalded on every vine, but not enough 
to warrant any special measures to be taken as a protection. The 
grapes have during this and last year ripened by the first days of 
September, but it is generally much later, or at about the lOth of 
September, when the vintage usually commences. The picking was, 



58 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

until last year, done by white labor, but the same was so very difficult 
to obtain that Chinese were then employed. They gave satisfaction 
to some, while to others not. Some of the principal groweis are this 
year (1889) going to employ Chinese help at $1.25 per day, at which 
price they board themselves. 

The Crop. — The grapes are dried on redwood trays made of sawed 
redwood shingles, three-eighths of an inch thick. The trays are made 
two by three feet. The best growers are this year going to assort the 
grapes when putting them on the trays. This was never done before, 
but will be of great advantage. A tray will average eighteen pounds 
of fresh grapes, which will take about one month to dry, — never less 
than three weeks. There is but little second crop, generally none 
that can be saved. September is the warmest month, or else the grapes 
could not be dried. At a temperature of 103 degrees Fahrenheit, it 
was found that grapes scalded or cooked while on the trays. This is, 
however, very rarely the case. From ninety-five to one hundred 
degrees is considered the best temperature at which the best raisins 
are made. The sweatboxes used formerly were two by three feet and 
ten inches deep; but of late eight inches and six inches in depth is 
considered the best, on account of the facility with which they can be 
handled. As to packing, many advocate twenty-pound boxes, that 
are only four and one-half inches deep, contending that they will hold 
twenty pounds of loose raisins. Few Dehesas are put up, the general 
brands being three crown London layers, and three crown loose 
Muscats. Some are also put up in fancy paper boxes. This year the 
valley has two packing companies, who buy raisins in sweatboxes, and 
pay from four to five and a half cents per pound. The yield jDer acre 
is from two to three tons of green grapes, I should say this year nearer 
two than three tons. I saw, however, some that would average five 
tons per acre, but this land was favorably situated in a moister place 
than is generally found in Sweetwater valley, and the vines were yet 
growing on August 21st. I heard of much greater yields, so extraor- 
dinary indeed that they are not likely to return again. From five to 
seven tons to the acre is a really rare yield, even on the best land, 
where the water is within six or seven feet of the surface. This shows 
me conclusively that judicious irrigation would materially increase the 
crop, and greatly improve the uniform size of the berries. The profit 
on an acre of bearing Muscat vines is from fifty to one hundred and 
twenty-five dollars per acre. The latter is the most any one realized, 
and thirty-five dollars is considered a good profit. The expense of 
running a vineyard is hard to ascertain, but those best informed told me 
that forty dollars per acre would be an average; this of course includes 
everything. The small amount of weeds and the absence of irrigation 
materially lessens the expenses of the El Cajon vineyards. 

Good vineyard or raisin land can be had for seventy-five dollars 
per acre. No vineyards in bearing have changed hands. Last year's 
(1888) pack of the whole of San Diego county was variously estimated 
at from twenty to thirty thousand boxes, and this year at sixty thousand 
boxes of twenty pounds each. 

The unanimous verdict of the best growers in El Cajon is that want 
of moisture is the greatest drawback to raisin culture there. And I 



th:E raisin industry. 59 

agree with them in this, but also think it might to some extent be 
remedied, as water for irrigation is close at hand. At last I must say 
a few words as to the quality of the El Cajon and Sweetwater valley 
raisins. They are very sweet, highly flavored, the skin is thin, and 
the seeds are small and few. But while some of the berries are of very 
large size, there are comparatively few which would be considered 
large, and even the best bunches have too many small berries. The 
grapes that had plenty of water were simply magnificent, and a gen- 
eral irrigation system would greatly improve the size of the grapes, as 
well as the quality of the crop. The best selected raisins from this 
valley must be counted as among the very best. The constant fog 
injures the bloom on the raisins to some extent, and most raisins that 
I saw were in this respect deficient; but their color generally was very 
good. The Sweetwater valley raisins are in this respect finer than 
those of El Cajon; they are also farther inland, and have less fog. 
The Escondido raisins are said to be superior, but I saw none of them. 
While many vines have been planted in this locality of late, only one 
or two small vineyards are in bearing. 

OTHER RAISIN DISTRICTS. 

Of late raisin grapes have been planted in considerable quantities in 
Salt river valley and in Gila river valley in Arizona, but the outcome 
of the venture is yet unknown, at least to us. The growers of Arizona 
claim for their localities the advantage of great earliness, as the grapes 
ripen there in July, or a month earlier than in California. 

In the Argentine Republic in South America it is said that the Span- 
ish immigrants have planted many raisin grapes during the last few 
years. In Australia we are also informed that dipped raisins, and per- 
haps even sun-dried ones, have been produced, but even there the 
result is unknown to us. So far these raisins have cut no figure in the 
general market, but it is not improbable that many localities in those 
vast countries will be found where Muscat grapes can be profitably 
grown and cured. 



CLIMATIC CONDITIONS, SOILS, LOCATION AND 

IRRIGATION. 

CI.IMATIC CONDITIONS FAVORABI.H AND UNFAVORABLE 
TO THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

Limits of the Raisin Districts. — It is an interesting fact, and by no 
means a coincidence, that the raisin districts of the world are found 
en or between the same latitudes. Thus we find the California dis- 
tricts between latitudes 32°, 75' and 38°, 75'. The latitude of Smyrna 
is 38'', 28', 7", that of Malaga in Spain 36°, 75', Valencia 39°, 25', 
Denia 38*, 50', the Grecian Islands and Morea 37° and 38°, and 
finally Huasco in Chile 28° south latitude. That the latter place is 
situated so much farther south or so much nearer the equator cannot 
exactly be considered exceptional, as it conforms with the general 
characteristics of the Southern hemispheres as compared with those 
on the northern half of the globe. In Europe the Muscat grape for 
raisin purposes is not a success north of the fortieth degree of lati- 
tude. While the limits in California and Chile are not yet fully 
ascertained, it may be presumed that, as far as regards this country, 
these limits will not differ very much from those of Spain and Asia 
Minor. Only years if not centuries of experience will finally decide 
where and where not raisin grapes can be grown and cured to per- 
fection. While the vines and the grapes can be grown in many 
places, the proper curing of the raisins is attended with more or less 
difficulty in the various districts. With proper modes of curing the 
grapes, and by protecting them from the inclemencies of the weather, 
the limits of the successful raisin districts may be extended consid- 
erably both north and south. 

Dry Scaso7is, Spring and Fall Rains. — ^The climate of the Mediterra- 
nean basin, as well as of the raisin districts of the New World, present 
the peculiarity of having only two distinct seasons, one dry and warm, 
and one cold and wet. There are other parts of the world also char- 
acterized by a dry and a wet season, for instance Mexico and Central 
America, etc., but they differ in the important point, that whereas the 
climate of the raisin districts is dry during the growing or summer 
season, Mexico has then its greatest rainfall. While grape-growing 
may not be impossible under such circumstances, the curing and dry- 
ing of raisins is impossible, except with the aid of costly and burden- 
some appliances, the expense of which will very much increase the 
cost of producing the raisins. The climate of the raisin centers is by 
no means uniform. As a rule, the farther north we go the less is the 
distinction between the dry and the wet season, the shorter is the 
former and the longer the season of rain. Experience shows that the 
less this distinction between the seasons is marked, and the shorter 
the rainless season, the less favorable is the climate for the raisin 



THE RAISIN INDUSTPY. 61 

industry. The longer the dry season, and the less rain during the 
same, the more favorable is the locality for raisin drying and curing, 
supposing, of course, other necessary conditions are not absent. This 
absence of summer rains and cold fog is the most important climatic 
condition, and the one that more than any other decides upon the 
advantages of any certain locality for the industry under our consid- 
eration. A perusal of the reports from the dififerent raisin districts will 
convmce us of this. For California we need not refer to any special 
reports, as the newspapers are full of them every year from May to 
November, and it will suffice to state that any large amount of rain 
after the beginning of June, and especially in September, October and 
November, when the raisins are curing, is considered very detrimental, 
and sure to cause much loss. Heavy and continued rainfall during 
the dr5ang season would not only injure the raisins, but might even 
totally ruin the crop. Any district where year after year such showers 
occur, would not be considered favorable for the raisin industry, 
and would no doubt be given up to something else. To show that 
these same conditions also exist in the Mediterranean raisin districts, 
we will here quote a few extracts from the United States consular reports 
from there. Consul W. K. Stevens, United States consul at Smyrna, 
^yrltes:* " It happens occasionally that rain falls during the vintage 
time, causing heavy loss to growers through the inevitable deterioration 
in quahty. This was the case last season (1883), and large quanti- 
ties of raisins were in consequence shipped to France to be made into 
spirits." From Valencia another consul writes: "In the event of wet 
and damp weather, the hurdles (or grape mats) are piled up in sheds 
covered with mats or painted canvas. Of course in this case the dry- 
ing is retarded, the quality of the fruit deteriorates, and the expense 
and labor of curing are considerably increased." Two years ago ten 
thousand tons were thus damaged in the Denia district. While the 
Mediterranean districts are comparatively rainless during the summer 
time, still they are far less so than California. The rainy and dry sea- 
sons there are less distinct than with us. 

Among the Grecian Islands, the production of currants is confined 
to only a few localities, principally on account of the untimely rainfall 
on the other islands. Dr. Davy {^Ionian Islands, page 320) tells us: ' ' The 
attempts to extend the culture of the currant to some other islands have 
been only partial, and attended with doubtful success. This, it is to 
be understood, is not owing, as has been asserted, to any unfitness of 
the soil on other islands, as it is analogous on them all, but rather 
to some difierence of climate, especially about the times of ripening, 
gathering and drying of the fruit, consisting in greater liability to 
rain, a heavy fall of which is ruinous to the crop, and which, during 
the period of gathering in the currant islands, is considered a great 
calamity." But even in Zante and Cephalonia in Greece, the crop is 
sometimes greatly injured on account of rain. Thus in 1857 a crop 
of fifty thousand tons was expected, but disastrous rains in August 
injured the raisin grapes to such an extent that seventeen thousand 
tons were totally destroyed, and twelve thousand tons became unfit 

* Consular Reports, No. 41 >^, June, 1884, page 745. 



62 THE) RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

for anything else than distilling. Malaga in Spain, which of all the 
districts most resembles California, has undergone similar experiences, 
both damaging and ruinous. 

It is thus that the fall rains are everywhere feared the most, the more 
so where they may be expected with regularity, and where the district is 
so situated that the heat of the sun is not powerful enough to rapidly 
dry the injured crop. Thus in Valencia the rains are feared more 
than at Malaga. In the latter place the sun is powerful enough to 
dry the raisins, and only repeated showers would injure the crop. Our 
experience is very much the same, and the early fall rains in the 
northern part of the State are to be feared much more than rains at 
the same time farther south, where a few showers would soon be suc- 
ceeded by warm weather, and a hot sun powerful enough to dry the 
partially cured grapes. On account of local conditions, certain parts 
of Central California are freer from these fall rains than the more 
southern districts, but this disadvantage is counteracted by the greater 
amount of warm weather and drying winds just at a time when they 
are most needed. But while the southern part of the State is in this 
respect not as favorably situated as some other parts, the disadvantage 
is greatly counteracted by the warmer and drier fall weather in October 
and November, and by drying winds which are often able to desiccate 
the moistened raisins in a very few days. 

Spring rains in May or even in the early part of June cannot be 
considered greatly detrimental to the vines. (Dn the contrary, if only 
occurring at long intervals, one or two showers say during the season, 
they are rather beneficial than otherwise. In California I have never 
known them to injure the crop, except if accompanied by heavy hail. 
Much alarm is regularly felt every time such a shower happens to 
come, but after it is well over it will generally be found that the 
vines look fresher and better, the ozone and ammonia which was 
brought down by the rain having acted as powerful fertilizers for the 
grape-leaves, and increased their vigor and growth. The only thing 
that might prove injurious at this or any other time of the growing 
season would be continued cloudy weather before or after such showers, 
which would cause mildew. Such weather has to my knowledge never 
been experienced. Occasionally spring rains also bring frost, and this 
of course is one of the greatest enemies of the raisin-vines. 

Winter Rains. — In order that the raisin grapes may develop and 
mature without the aid of irrigation, the winter rains should be suffi- 
cient to keep the soil moist during the dry months. The absolute 
quantity of rain thus necessary varies in different localities. In Cali- 
fornia, generally, we would say that from twenty to twenty-four inches 
of rain would be required every year to keep the soil sufficiently moist 
to grow Muscatel grapes without irrigation. The nearer we go to the 
coast the less rainfall is required to supply this moisture, and the farther 
we go inland, the more elevated the land, the less rain is needed. Thus 
a regular rainfall of twenty-four inches would possibly not suffice on the 
low plains of the San Joaquin valley, while in El Cajon in San Diego 
county one-half of this rainfall is enough to grow the vines and mature 
small crops of very good and superior grapes. 



THS RAISIN INDUSTRY. 63 

It matters not from where the moisture comes, — from rain, seepage, 
moist air or irrigation, — as long as it is not present in excess nor too 
scant. In El Caj on valley the moisture appears to be held in suspense 
in impervious strata, or perhaps in strata which contain and preserve 
the moisture as does a sponge. In parts of Chile, as well as in Malaga 
and Smyrna, the winter rainfall is sufficient to grow crops of fair size 
and good quality, but it is almost certain that judicious irrigation 
in any of these places proves beneficial and remunerative. Of all 
the present raisin districts, Smyrna enjoys the greatest rainfall, 
often as much as thirty odd inches of rain. Of localities which grow 
raisins profitably with the least possible amount of rain, and without 
irrigation, Huasco and El Cajon take the lead. In Central California, 
as well as in San Bernardino county, no raisin culture would be pos- 
sible with the natural rainfall. In foreign countries, Valencia and the 
Grecian Islands, as well as Morea, are similarly situated in not having 
sufficient rainfall to produce paying crops. 

As a rule it may be said that, where the rainfall is sufficient to gi'ow 
the Muscats without irrigation and cause them to bear good crops, the 
fall rains are also too frequent and too injurious to the drying grapes to 
allow a profitable raisin cult. The proper amount of moisture necessary 
to perfect the grapes cannot be ascertained by the aid of the rain gauge. 
While, as we have said, from twenty to thirty inches may be enough in 
Smyrna, from seven to ten inches suffice in El Cajon, and in Chile 
even less is required. The proper amount of moisture can best be told 
by the state of growth of the vines. The vines must have moisture 
enough to be kept growing up to the very time of the maturity of 
the grapes. The proper sign of this is the green and fresh color of 
the young shoots or the tips, combined with a certain vigor of the ten- 
drils. When the tips cease to grow, and the tendrils begin to dry up, 
then the moisture has begun to give out, and irrigation should have 
been resorted to ; the winter rains were not sufficient. 

Frosts 171 Spring and Winter. — One of the frequent effects of spring 
showers is spring frosts. They are always injurious to the tender 
Muscat vine, and if occurring more than once during the same spring 
may entirely ruin the crop. In California such frosts occur some- 
times in April, and observations inform us that they are most to 
be feared between the tenth and fifteenth of that month, while some- 
times they come even later. The young buds are then either opening 
or fully developed into shoots, which the lightest frost will blacken 
and cause to dry up. Where the vines are irrigated and strong, one 
such frost may not ruin the crop, as new buds will start out in place of 
the old ones destroyed, and new shoots and new blossoms will come 
out. I have seen as many as three such crops of shoots develop from 
the winter buds, but each succeeding crop of such shoots is weaker 
than the preceding one, and bears less and later grapes. Happily, 
these frosts occur but very seldom in the Central and Southern Cali- 
fornia raisin districts, and during fifteen years of observation I have 
seen only three such frost years in which the branches were partially 
injured. In neither of these seasons was the crop materially injured 
as to quantity, the principal effect of the frost being a retarding of the 



64 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

crop for a week or more. Smoking of vineyards can only be success- 
fully carried out in small valleys sheltered from heavy winds, but on 
the open plains such smoking is accompanied with difiSculties, and its 
effect is uncertain. The growing of a limited number of windbreaks 
has in the Fresno district no doubt modified the climate, and made 
spring frosts rarer and less to be feared. 

While the spring frosts are injurious to the grapes, winter frosts are 
on the other hand most beneficial, if not necessary to a continued 
raisin cult. The raisin grape must have a season of recuperation, and 
winter frost is the only climatic phenomenon which, without injury to 
the vine, can procure it that rest which is so necessary for all decid- 
uous trees, by nature destined to enjoy alternate periods of growth and 
sleep. The absence of frost causes the sap of the vine to circulate more 
or less in the wood, and the vine never ceases to grow. This is one of 
the reasons why our deciduous vines do not succeed well in the tropics, 
where there are no cold seasons to cause the leaves to fall and the sap 
to become dormant. In the tropics, therefore, our deciduous vines keep 
on growing, set little or no fruit, and prove unprofitable. This phe- 
nomenon is shared there with other trees, and peaches, pears and apples 
act in the same manner. They all appear to need the rest afforded 
them by the winter frosts. It is also a question of very great import- 
ance, whether the continued and unnatural activity of the vine, at a 
time when it should be dormant, does not invite diseases of various 
kinds, which find the exhausted vines unfit to withstand their ravages. 
It may be possible that mal nero, the vine plague and other similar 
and as yet insufficiently understood diseases, are especially destructive 
to vines growing in frost-free climates, while in colder climates they 
make but little headway, the vines as it were being protected by the 
heavy frosts, which either kill the enemies of the vine or enable the 
latter to gather the necessary strength to battle with them through the 
growing season. There can be little doubt that at present the 
healthiest vineyards are those growing in countries where winter frosts 
are severe, but on the other hand we know that grapevines have 
been growing for ages in temperate climates, where the frosts, even if 
not entirely unknown, are still of very rare occurrence. 

Summer Temperature. — The temperature in summer time must be 
suflScient to properly ripen the grapes, but must not be so great as to 
injure them either while they hang on the vines, or while they are 
exposed to dry on the trays. The average heat required to do the 
work of maturing is not exactly known, but it is certain that a very 
high degree is not absolutely needed to produce sweet grapes. As far 
as our experience goes, it seems that cool weather, with the average 
temperature of ninety degrees Fahrenheit, would be most beneficial in 
the fore part of the season, while when the grapes begin to ripen a 
greater heat is desirable. It is not the warmest countries nor the 
warmest seasons which produce the earliest grapes. Thus while the 
season of 1888 was in California unusually cool, with the thermometer 
seldom reaching one hundred degrees in June and July, the raisin sea- 
son was nevertheless a very early one, and much earlier than seasons 
remarkable for their earh/ high temperature. In Malaga and Smyrna, 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 65 

the heat seldom reaches one hundred degrees, and the grapes ripen 
several weeks earlier than in Fresno, where the summer temperature 
averages ten degrees higher. In Fresno, on the contrary, the season 
is earlier than in Southern California, where probably the seabreezes 
retard the ripening of the grapes. A temperature of over one hundred 
and five degrees proves injurious to unprotected or exposed grapes in 
the central region of California, but in San Diego county several 
degrees less is sufficient to scald the grapes or give them a cooked flavor 
if they are already exposed on the trays to dry. It is certain that with 
an average highest temperature of ninety degrees, the grapes develop 
better and become larger and sweeter than where the heat is excessive 
and reaches one hundred and ten degrees or more.* 

The time when the greatest temperature occurs is of practical 
importance. Excessive heat can be tolerated by grapes protected by 
leaves and branches or otherwise sheltered, but if it happens at a time 
when the bunches are exposed to dry on the trays, the injury to the 
berries will be great or even ruinous. Early localities are especially apt 
to suffer in this way, and it is well to experiment before too much con- 
fidence is placed in very early regions. To such places, however, there 
remains the possibility of curing the raisins in partial shade, as is done 
in Chile, thus producing raisins of an entirely different type from the 
Malaga or California product. 

Winds, Injurious or Beneficial. — In the California raisin districts hot, 
electrical winds are much feared in the months of June and July, or 
l^sforc the grapes have begun to ripen. In the San Joaquin valley 
these winds come from the northwest and sweep down over the vines, 
often scorching the leaves and frequently drying the berries on the 
exposed side. In the course of a few days the berries dry up entirely, 
and the whole bunch is lost. These drying winds are not peculiar to 
any certain part of California, but occur from time to time in every 
raisin district on the coast, in the south as well as in the center, on the 
coast as well as inland. The remedy is to grow the vines low and to 
keep the berries well covered. The planting of windbreaks will also 
modify these winds, and in places where they formerly were common 
they have now entirely ceased or become so modified that they cause 
no injury to the grapes, but prove even beneficial on account of the 
quicker and better maturing of the fruit. In certain districts, espe- 
cially in San Bernardino and in Orange, some very drying winds are 
experienced late in the season, — in September and October. For the 
raisin-growers these winds are a blessing. They quickly dry the 
exposed grapes, which have been retarded in drying, or perhaps even 
injured by a previous shower of rain or by continued heavy dews. 
These winds are undoubtedly desert winds, and similar to the Terral 
of Malaga, which, sweeping over the inland plains of I^a Mancha, 
reach the coast vineyards and quickly mature the grapes. In Malaga 
there is also a moist southern wind, the Levante, which retards the 
ripening and the curing of the grapes, and which must be considered 
as our southwesterly fall winds, which, saturated with moisture, swell 

* Whenever the temperature is referred to it means the degree of heat (Fahren- 
heit) in the shade, and not in the sun except when so expressly stated. 



66 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

the overdried raisins as well as prevent the yet green grapes from dry- 
ing. They are precursors of the rainy season, and warn the grower to 
prepare his dryer if he possess one. In Greece and Smyrna such 
hot or moist winds are also known and feared, and cause at times much 
damage in one way or another. We might here also mention the cold 
"northers" which are common in the California raisin districts in 
springtime, and which sometimes both cause the young shoots to 
break off from the old wood and make it easy for the mildew to attack 
the flowers or the young berries of the vines. Against these north- 
west winds we have two remedies, summer pruning and sulphuring, 
which, if applied in time, are both quite effective. 

Fogs and Moisture in the Air. — It is certain that the air in the Cali- 
fornia raisin districts is much drier than that of the Spanish or Medi- 
terranean districts generally. The night air is, in these districts, 
loaded with moisture, and dew is heavy and frequent, even in the 
middle of the summer. The air in Malaga and Smyrna feels quite 
moist, and without this moisture in the air the vines would grow less 
and require irrigation. In these places the raisin grapes grow on the 
steep hillsides without irrigation, but in California this could not be 
done any where except in El Cajon or in other parts of the San Diego 
district, where the air is considerably moister than elsewhere. This 
increased moisture is partly caused by the increased rainfall in these 
districts, and partly by their nearness to the sea and fogs. This mois- 
ture in the air will, when other conditions are equal, greatly benefit 
the grapes, causing them to grow larger, and the thickness of the skin 
is materially diminished. Combined with this moisture in the air, fogs 
are injurious or indifferent. There is always a great difference between 
warm fogs and cold fogs, and now I speak principally of fogs from the 
ocean. Warm fogs are not particularly injurious to the grapes, gener- 
ally indifferent and sometimes even considerable of a benefit to the 
proper development of the grapes. In Malaga, San Diego and in 
Chile the Muscat grapes grow and thrive actually within the reach of 
the spray of the waves, and fogs are there not uncommon, but they 
are warm. It would seem that such a climate would cause mildew or 
oidium, but I cannot find that these fungi are particularly frequent in 
San Diego county, while in Malaga they are but little more common 
than in the inland districts of our State. But as we go north the cold 
fogs become more common, and the vines thrive less under their influ- 
ence. North of I^os Angeles county the Muscat vines do not enjoy the 
coast air, while even in Orange county the interior vineyards are 
preferred to those closer to the coast. But anywhere, even in the best 
situated districts, protection from the direct influence of the sea fogs is 
appreciated, and the best localities are those in which low hills afford 
this protection by modifying and increasing the temperature of the fog 
or sea air. 

In Central, and in the larger part of Southern, California, the inland 
valleys are the most successful raisin-producing districts, while even 
in San Diego county, where the Muscats seem to thrive at the very 
seashore, the interior valleys alone afford the necessary heat and dry 
air for curing the grapes and transforming them into raisins. Accord- 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 67 

ing to Consul G. H. Heap of Constantinople, the positions preferred 
for vineyards in Turkey are the slopes of elevated and sheltered undu- 
lating lands, or on the sunny hills that do not lie too near the coast, 
or are naturally protected from the cold winds and fogs of the sea. 
The Island of Cos or Zea is called the paradise of the Sultana grape, 
because Nature has given the cultivable land there the best possible 
protection from the direct influence of the fogs. In Malaga, according 
to Consul Marston, eighty per cent of the vineyards are situated on the 
hills and inland, ten per cent on the valley lands or plains, and ten per 
cent on the coast. With the exception of some of the San Diego 
vineyards, California cannot show any raisin vineyards as close to the 
coast as those found in Malaga. The main El Cajon vineyards are 
from ten to fifteen miles inland, while the former Santa Ana vineyards 
were situated from eight to twelve miles from the coast. The San 
Bernardino raisin vineyards are from twenty to thirty miles inland, 
while in the San Joaquin valley the raisin districts are more than a 
hundred miles from the coast, while the sea wind, before it reaches any 
of the vines, has been modified by passing over from two to three 
hundred miles of dry country. 

Ideal Conditions of Climate. — There remains only to draw some con- 
clusions from the above facts. We are often asked what are the ideal 
conditions, as far as climate is concerned, for the proper development 
of the raisin grape, and for the proper curing of the raisins. Could we 
select such an ideal spot, where all the requirements for the raisin 
industry could be found in their highest perfection, with as few of the 
drawbacks as possible, our choice would be as follows: A moderately 
dry air, a frostless spring, a rainy winter and a rainless autumn. The 
temperature in the summer should vary between ninety and one hun- 
dred degrees, the fall months should now and then be visited by 
drying winds, while the winter frosts should be heavy and regular, but 
not below twelve degrees. Some have suggested that absolute freedom 
from any rain would be very desirable, as then no interference would 
be experienced with the cultivation of the grapes, but I doubt if the soil 
in «^uch districts would not be rapidly exhausted through the want of 
weeds, the plowing under of which enriches the ground and enables it 
better to preserve the moisture provided for it by irrigation. 

SOILS. 

General Remarks. — No one certain variety of soil can be said to be 
the best for raisin purposes, and both in different countries, as well as 
in the same district, various varieties of soils are valued equally. 
Every raisin district has, however, its favorite soil, which is sup- 
posed to have some peculiar advantages for the raisin grapes, but 
upon closer investigation we generally find other varieties of soils 
which are not inferior. Growers who have succeeded with raisin 
grapes on one variety of soil are only too apt to consider this kind 
preferable to any other. This is especially the case in California, 
where soils vary so much and where in some districts it is difficult to 
find forty acres with a uniform soil. Whether the soil is black, red 



68 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

or gray, it makes but very little difference, as long as it is ricli and 
susceptible of the highest state of cultivation and has the faculty of 
retaining moisture. The deeper and richer the soil the better the 
Muscatel grape will thrive' and produce, and as such soils are most 
generally found along the banks of creeks and rivers, or in their 
bottoms and sinks, we might conclude that in such localities the best 
soils for the Muscat grape may be found. Other varieties of raisin 
grapes, such as the Malaga (California) and the Sultana, do well in less 
rich soil; indeed, they bear profitably in places where the Muscat 
would be a failure. It is therefore important for every vineyardist 
to carefully select his soil and then plant on it the proper variety of 
vine. 

Malaga. — The soils of Malaga are of various kinds. The best is a 
reddish loam containing much gravel, both coarse and fine. This soil 
is very stiff and hard, and when dry is as solid as a brick. The red 
color is derived from oxide of iron or other iron compounds, which 
many of the best vineyardists consider a most desirable element in any 
raisin soil. The upland vineyards, or those on the slope of the hills, 
contain soils of decomposed clay and slate mixed with more or less 
gravel and sand. The Uehesa lands contain alluvial deposits of a black 
or gray color. 

Valencia and Denia. — In this district we find soils of many different 
grades and colors. The sandy and gravelly soils are considered as 
producing the finest flavored raisins, and those having the best keeping 
qualities, while the rich, loamy soils of the valleys produce raisins of 
inferior flavor and keeping qualities, but of larger size and more per 
acre. For economical reasons, the latter soils are preferred, as they 
alone can be irrigated and made to produce large crops. Some of the 
best vineyards in this district contain a gray, ashy soil, quite similar to 
the white ash of the Kings river lands, while others are growing on a 
red claj^ey loam similar to the California red soil. 

Smyrna. — The raisin-grapes of Smyrna in Asia Minor are almost 
exclusively grown on a white limestone soil, which consists of decom- 
posed white rocks mixed with a stiff ocher-colored loam. This soil is 
so rocky that it must first be cleared, and the large rocks are carried 
away and used for boundary walls. This is the soil in the coast 
districts. In the interior the Sultana vines, as well as the Muscats, 
are replaced by fig orchards and other trees which delight in sandy 
soil, — too sandy to produce profitable raisin crops. 

Zante. — The soils of Zante, the home of the Currant grape, are of 
various kinds. The heavy marl of the plains, which contains a large 
percentage of gypsum or sulphate of lime, is considered the best; 
indeed the gypsum is by many considered indispensable, or at least 
highly beneficial, to the above variety of grape. Other soils are red 
clay, gray marl and gravelly loam, all containing an abundance of 
lime. The Currant grape grows well and produces well on all these 
different soils, but does the best oh the gypsum soil, which is there- 
fore the most valued. On other soils the bunches are less solid, and 
the quantity of grapes produced is somewhat less, while their quality 
is inferior. 



the; raisin industry. 69 

Chile. — The Huasco grape grows in the valley of Huasco, on the 
coast of Chile, in a soil that is very light and red, containing a great 
quantity of sand. While very light in weight, this soil is said to be 
very rich in plant food, and yields good crops. 

Fresno. — The Fresno soils are of several kinds, but the three prin- 
cipal varieties are red or chocolate-colored loam, white or gray ashy 
soil, and a light, very sandy, loam. To this may be added the deeper 
gray bottom soils or alluvial deposits of the Kings river. Each one 
of these varieties have different grades more or less suitable to the 
Muscatel grape. The best grades of each are equally valuable, while 
again the poorer grades are not to be recommended. The deep choco- 
late-colored loam is by many preferred, and the largest and most 
successful raisin vineyards are now located on this soil. But even in 
the best districts the soil varies to such an extent, that while one 
twenty-acre field will yield 250 boxes of raisins to the acre, the adjoin- 
ing field, with only a slight change in the soil, will yield only seventy- 
five boxes to the acre. The best grades of the white ashy soil are also 
very good, and almost identical with the gray bottom-land deposits of 
Kings river. The light sandy soil should be avoided for Muscat 
grapes, but may do for Malaga and Sultanas, especially if judiciously 
fertilized. 

Other Soils in San Joaquin Valley. — In Merced the best soil is heavy 
chocolate-colored loam, in places redder, in others darker, almost 
blackish. It is generally mixed with some gravel. As a rule, all the 
red soil in the San Joaquin valley is of the same characteristics, and 
well suited to the Muscat grape, provided the ground is sufficiently 
level. In Tulare county the proper soil for the Muscat is found to 
be the bottom lands of Kings and Kaweah rivers, as well as the 
deposits of the smaller creeks. This variety of gray alluvial loam is 
exceedingly fertile, and there is none superior for the Muscat grape. 
But an admixture of alkali often spoils soils which otherwise would 
be considered the very best. A similar soil is found in Kern county, 
especially near Kern I^ake, and which must be rated among the best 
in the State, its color being a deep bluish gray. The vineyards of 
Yolo and Solano counties are located on a very similar soil, rich in 
humus, lime and phosphates, but more yellowish or pale chocolate 
colored. 

Orange Cotinty. — A similar rich alluvial deposit is found in Orange 
county in the fertile district known as Santa Ana valley. The soil 
around Anaheim, Santa Ana, Orange and Tustin consists of a more 
or less dark alluvial loam of unsurpassed fertility, and especially 
adapted to the Muscat grape. It varies as to the percentage of sand 
and gravel. The sandiest soil in this district, while less rich, brings 
the earliest grapes, which come to perfect ripeness several weeks before 
those grown on the heavier soils, but the latter produce the best raisins. 

Redlands and Riverside. — The Redlands soil of the mesa lands is 
reddish, rather darker than the same quality of soil in Riverside and 
Fresno. It is mixed with sand and gravel, and partakes strongly of 
the nature of the red or chocolate-colored loams of the State. The 
Lugonia bottom soil consists of a very sandy loam, on which the 



70 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

Muscat grape has proved a failure. The best Riverside soil is red or 
chocolate-colored sandy loam, so often spoken of. Towards Rincon 
we find alluvial bottom soils producing grapes of superb quality and 
size. The soil of the San Bernardino district resemble the red Fresno 
soils, while the white ashy soil is not found there. 

El Cajon. — The El Cajon valley soils are of three or more kinds: 
Rich red clay mixed with gravel, with the color changing from lighter 
chocolate to deeper reddish. This is a very desirable soil, — a steel gray 
or slate gray adobe with much gravel of a coarse nature; a black adobe 
with some gravel; an alluvial sandy loam consisting of decomposed 
granite mixed with much vegetable matter and humus. The El Cajon 
soils, while sandy and gravelly, produce exceedingly sweet and highly 
flavored grapes but comparatively small crops. 

Subsoils. — The subsoil in a raisin vineyard is of great importance. 
Properly irrigated soils, if they are sufiSciently rich, need not neces- 
sarily be very deep, as the raisin grapes, especially the Muscat, seldom 
extend deeper than eight feet below the surface. Even from four to 
five feet of rich soil may be considered as enough in irrigated vine- 
yards, where the water is abundant. In poorer soils, or in districts 
with less irrigation, the roots of the vines penetrate much deeper, and 
the importance of the subsoil in such cases is apparent. Any rich 
subsoil will serve our purpose. It is always best to thoroughly inves- 
tigate the subsoil before the vineyard is planted, and in doing this the 
following points must be considered: The subsoil should be as rich as 
possible, and there should, in no instance, be less than four feet of rich 
top soil. Very sandy soil or pure sand is not a proper subsoil for raisin 
grapes. Such soil will cause the top soil to dry too quickly after 
each irrigation, and will cause the top soil to leach out, while it besides 
gives no nourishment to the vines. Hardpan is not desirable, not even 
admissible, except in places that are or will become subirrigated. 
Alkali or salty subsoils will soon spoil the quality of even the best top 
soil. This especially is the case in irrigated districts, where the salts 
of the subsoil are carried to the top by the rising waters or by the 
continued irrigation. Hardpan which readily dissolves when wet is 
not injurious. 

Hardpan Soils. — While I have alluded to them already, a few more 
remarks on these soils are here in place. The hardpan consists of a 
stratum of hard soil or hard rocky substance below the top soil. The 
depth at which the hardpan is found varies. In places where it is 
situated eight or ten feet below the top surface it does but very little 
harm, and may even prove beneficial in localities where water for irriga- 
tion is scarce, as it checks too rapid drainage. If the hardpan is 
situated closer to the top soil, it may seriously interfere with the 
vines, and if too close, or say within two or three feet from the top, 
it makes such soils entirely unfit for raisin grapes. If situated 
somewhat lower down, say from four to six feet, the hardpan does no 
great harm in subirrigated districts, while, in places where irriga- 
tion is not used, it leaves the top soil too shallow and too dry. But 
allowance must always be made as to the nature of the hardpan. Some 
varieties of hardpan are so hard that they can best be compared to 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 



71 



recrular stratified rocks, impenetrable to the roots of the vines, and 
impervious to water. Other hardpans again are softer, and allow the 
vine roots to penetrate more or less readily, while some agam are so 
soft that they dissolve in water and make good soil for the vines. If 
the hardpan is very shallow, it may pay to blast holes through it, m 
order to allow the roots of the vines to penetrate to lower soils. But 
if the hardpan is thick and hard, and if there is no immediate pros- 
pect of subirrigation, it is better to use such land for some other pur- 
pose than for raisin-vines, which will only pay properly if grown 
under the most favorable circumstances, and on the best and deepest 

As to the nature of the hardpan, a few remarks may prove of interest. 
The hardpan can best be compared to a slalactite formation similar to 
those found in various caves. It has been formed very much in the 
same way as they were. In caves the rainwater, that seeps down 
from the top surface, dissolves various substances, especially carbonates 
(and silicates even) which again are deposited on the underside of the 
cave roof This precipitation of hard material is caused both by evapo- 
ration of the water, as well as by attraction and adhesion. Such redep- 
osition of dissolved minerals is seen for instance if solutions of salt 
in water are passed through tasteless and clean sand. The water will 
come through sweet and tasteless, the salt having adhered to the 
surface of the sand grains. Similarly, if a hole is dug near the sea- 
shore in the sand, the salt water will seep through, and form a well ot 
more or less tasteless drinking water. In the formation of hardpan, 
this is exactly what has taken place. The rainwater has dissolved 
certain elements, such as carbonates of lime, or carbonates of sodium 
and various other salts, and in its way through the lower strata of the 
soil these dissolved elements have again been taken up by the sand 
and cemented it together. Thus it is explained why hardpan upon 
examination is so often found to resemble sand or sandstone: the 
lower sandy strata of the soil have been especially effective m causing 
the lime in the water to adhere to the numerous surfaces of every 
individual grain of sand. In hog-wallow districts the hardpan is 
found principally between the individual hog-wallows, but rarely m 
or under them. The rainwater has here carried the minerals in the 
soil to the deeper places belweeen the hog-wallows, in which it has 
accumulated to a greater extent than anywhere else, and thus formed 
a heavier hardpan. In flooding the hog-wallows, the top of every 
hog-wallow is seen to settle and fall in, there being no hardpan below 
it, if the sides of the hog-wallow are steep. Where the hardpan con- 
sists principally of lime compounds, its chemical composition is not 
detrimental to the vines. But where the hardpan is cemented by 
alkalies more or less soluble in water, these deleterious substances will 
dissolve and rise to the surface to the great detriment or even to the 
total destruction of the vineyard. 

Comparative Value of Soils.— t\x^ river bottom soils, or soils formed 
by the deposit of creeks, are with few exceptions rich and deep, and 
contain in abundance all the elements necessary to produce a superior 
Muscat grape. Such soils are, however, often injured by subsoils 



72 the; raisin industry. 

containing mineral deposits, which will injure the vines, or by hard- 
pans, which will cause the soil to dry out. Poor soils will not prove 
profitable, and rather than plant vines on such soils it would be better 
to plant no vines at all. The rich soils are not only the heaviest pro- 
ducers, but the vines grown on them are stronger and healthier and in 
every way better able to resist the attacks of insects and fungi and the 
ravages of other inexplicable diseases. But regardless of these 
advantages the various soils leave their effects on the grapes, some of 
them producing sweet and very keeping raisins, while others cause 
large berries and bunches, which bring the highest market price. 
Thus the lighter and drier soils produce richer flavored and sweeter 
raisins than the wet and rich soils, which again produce the largest and 
handsomest grapes. On the latter soils the raisins when cured will be 
found to be dark and covered with a heavy bloom, while the raisins 
from the sandier or gravelly soils are lighter in color and with less pro- 
nounced bloom. The keeping quality of the raisins from gravelly 
soils is well known. In California the keeping quality of the raisins is 
seldom inquired into, as our raisins keep remarkably well and are in 
this respect superior to those grown in Spain. This may be from the 
effect of our drier climate more than from any certain quality in our 
soils. 

As a rule it may be said that poor soil causes the raisins to mature 
earlier than the rich, heavy loams, and on this account the latter are 
to be greatly preferred, as the earliest raisins in any district are never 
as good as the bulk of the crop, and are in demand rather as a curiosity, 
and for the purpose of supplying an early market, than through any 
superior qualities. In some districts there is such a great difference 
in the time of ripening upon the various soils that the grapes grown 
on the earliest soils are used only as table grapes fresh. In planting 
a raisin vineyard, the future profits depend upon the choice of land, 
and it is far better to pay a high price for the best land than to take 
the inferior land as a gift. Few of those who now enter upon raisin 
culture take the proper care in selecting the land, neither do they 
sufiicientl}^ if at all, realize the advantages of the rich soil, nor the 
disadvantages of the poor land. 

Alkali Soils. — While nothing but first-class land is to be recom- 
mended for raisin vineyards, and alkali lands are of all soils those 
least suitable for our purpose, still a consideration of these lands will 
interest many raisin-grape growers. The best lands for raisin purposes 
in California are often contiguous to alkali lands, or to land containing 
more or less traces of alkali. A vineyard on the best soil contains 
often spots charged with alkali, and it may be inconvenient for the 
grower to allow these spots to lie idle, and he would prefer to fill them 
up with vines. The first work must then be to get rid of the alkali or 
reduce it to such an extent that it will not prove injurious. The gen- 
eral alkali lands are classed in three kinds, according to the quality of 
the alkali. 

I St. Alkali salts, such as carbonates and borates. These are greatly 
detrimental to the vines, and no vines could be expected to do well in 
such soils, as even the smallest percentage of this alkali is injurious 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 73 

or even ruinous to the crop. In clayey soils these alkalies cause the 
clay to harden in such a way that no good tilth can be obtained. The 
land may be plowed ever so much, it will only turn up in chunks and 
never become properly pulverized. These true alkali salts consist 
principally of carbonate of sodium (sal-soda) or of carbonate of potassium 
(saleratus). Remedies: Gypsum, land-plaster or leaching with water. 

2d. A second class of alkalies are the sulphates and chlorides, all 
soluble in water. Such salts are: Magnesium chloride (bittern), 
magnesium sulphate (Epsom salt), calcium chloride, etc. These 
salts, when not present in too large quantities, are easily counteracted 

by lime. 

3d. A third class of alkalies is composed of neutral salts, such as 
chloride of sodium (common salt), sulphate of sodium (Glauber salt), 
sulphate of potassium, all soluble in water, but not convertible into 
less injurious substances by lime or gypsum. These salts do not bake 
the soil, but rather contribute towards keeping it loose and mellow. 

The remedies which are practical and not too expensive may be 
divided into several classes, which, if used in combination, may prove 
effective, while each one of them used separately would fail. 

I St. Leaching with water. All soluble salts may be leached with 
water. The alkali land should be checked and so ditched that the 
water from each check can be drained into a waste ditch. But, besides 
these waste ditches, drain ditches should be made for the purpose of 
draining off the water, say to a depth of four feet below the surface. 
Tlie modus operandi consists in first flooding the soil, and while the 
check is yet full the floodgates are opened and the water drawn off into 
the waste ditch, when the water will carry off the salts which have 
been dissolved in it. A second or third flooding should be allowed to 
settle in the soil and be drained off below into the drain ditches. The 
drawback to common leaching is that under certain circumstances the 
water may deposit its alkali in lower strata, especially if they are sandy, 
and there form hardpan or alkali accumulations. A much better 
method is under-drainage by means of pipes or gravel drains con- 
structed all through the tract at certain regular distances. This under- 
drainage, if properly constructed under conditions favorable for its 
perfect working, is by far the best method of freeing alkali soils from 
their superfluous salts. To what extent this system is practical depends 
upon circumstances. To reclaim large districts by this method may 
not prove economical as long as good land is plentiful and cheap, but 
where smaller alkali tracts are surrounded by soil, and where it is of 
importance to get a uniform plantation, under-drainage by pipes or 
common drains is both the surest and most practical solution of the 
alkali problem. Under-drainage is strongly recommended by Prof. E.W. 
Hilgard, who has repeatedly pointed out its value, and who has called 
the author's special attention to this as yet little understood remedy. _ 

2d. Deep and constant plowing. Deep and frequent plowing acts in 
various wavs. By being mixed with a larger quantity of soil, the 
alkali is diluted sufiiciently to not cause any serious injury to the crops, 
the damage generally being done near the surface. Constant plowing 
also prevents evaporation, which carries the alkali to the surface and 



74 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

deposits it there. This method can only be successful when the alkali 
salts are limited in quantity, and no one need expect to be able to rid 
badly charged lands from their alkali by plowing it under. 

3d. By plowing under green or dry crops. If grain can be made to 
grow on the alkali land at all the turning under of it, either green or 
dry, will in course of time greatly reduce the alkali. The turned- 
uuder stubble or straw forms in decaying an acid, which in many 
instances will combine with and counteract the effects of the alkali. 
Similarly, straw stacks spread on alkali spots and plowed under will 
considerably reduce the alkali. But manure containing ammonia and 
other salts should not be used, as it will, on the contrary, only increase 
the alkali by adding other or similar salts to those already in the soil. 

4th. Cropping. If water, either in the form of sufl&cient rain or as 
irrigation can be had, alkali lands can be reclaimed by cropping. It is 
amply proved that beets and carrots, as well as other plants, such as 
salt-bush {Che7iopodiu77i) , take up large quantities of alkali salts, and 
in the course of a few years render alkali soils available for grain. 
Wheat also extracts alkalies, and repeated croppings with grain will in 
the course of time prepare the soil for vines and trees. Bermuda grass 
will completely remove the alkali from soils to the depth at which the 
roots can penetrate, and must be recommended for the worst places. 
Afterwards, cropping with annual crops may be advisable before vines 
are finally planted on such reclaimed lands. The Australian salt- 
bushes, or Ciienopodimn, extract alkalies, and are besides liked by stock. 
They should be introduced to alkali lands and take the place of the 
California native salt-bushes, which are not eaten by stock. While 
being real desert plants, they yet require some moisture in the soil, but 
they could probably be grown anywhere on the alkali lands in this 
Stale where the rainfall is over three or four inches. 

5th. By chemicals. The use of chemicals of various kinds in coun- 
teracting the alkali is not resorted to by our farmers as it should be. 
The principle upon which chemicals can be used is that obnoxious 
or greatly injurious alkalies may be changed into less obnoxious and 
less injurious salts, or even into fertilizers. The most available of 
these chemical compounds are gypsum (sulphate of lime) and lime 
(carbonate of lime). When the alkali consists mainly of carbonates, 
such as carbonate of sodium (sal-soda) or potassium carbonate (saler- 
atus), in other vi^ords of the class which we have designated as class 
number one, the most dangerous and worst class of alkalies to combat, 
gypsum may be used as an antidote or rather as a means to convert 
these alkalies into alkalies of the second class, or the sulphates. The 
principle upon which this is done is to displace the sulphate in the 
gypsum and force it to combine with the alkali (sodium carbonate) 
and form sulphate of sodium (Glauber salt), an alkali belonging to the 
third class of alkalies, and which is twenty times less injurious to vege- 
tation than is class number one. The change is made on the follow- 
ing principle, and might be thus illustrated: To the alkali in the soil 
(carbonate of sodium), add sulphate of lime. As soon as the mixture 
is made with sufficient water, a change will take place, and the sub- 
stances (carbonate of sodium and sulphate of lime) will form new 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 75 



compounds. Thus we will get, out of those two substances, two new 
compounds, viz., carbonate of lime and sulphate of sodium. Of these 
caZnate of lime is not injurious to vegetable life, and sulphate of 
sodium (Glauber salt) is only injurious when present in large quan- 
tities The carbonate of lime is not soluble in water, but the sulphate 
of sodium is, and can consequently be eUminated by underdraming or 
bv flooding, as we have previously described. , 

To know when gypsum can be used is not necessarily a scientific 
matter Mix some of the alkali in a tumbler with water, and allow 
the mixture to settle. In another tumbler mix some gypsum and 
water, and allow it to settle. Then mix the two clear liquids, which, if 
gypsum is an antidote and the proper thing to use, will be turbid or 
milky through the chemical combinations which take place If the 
water remains clear, gypsum will not prove an antidote to the alkali 
under consideration. The use of lime is based very much on the same 
principle If the second class of alkalies are present, and hme is added 
the changes that take place may be illustrated as follows: Epsom salt 
Cmagnesium sulphate) combined with calcium carbonate, will form 
two new compounds, viz., gypsum (calcium sulphate) and magnesium 
carbonate, both of which substances are less injurious to crops. But as 
I have already stated, raisin-vines prefer soils which are naturally free 
from alkali, and should never be planted on soils which cannot readily 
be reclaimed. Chemical antidotes may do where the alkali occurs in 
a few spots mixed in among tracts of good soil, but where the whole 
field must be reclaimed some other crop than vines had better be 
first attempted. There is too much good arid suitable soil m Cali- 
fornia, and until all this is occupied the alkali soils had better be 
eiven up to other crops than vines. 

Fertilizing- —To this date but few grape-growers manure their soil. 
California has not yet been engaged in the raisin business twenty years 
and her vineyards are comparatively virgm. The first raism vineyards 
were planted on the deepest and richest soil, the soil which would 
naturally hold out the longest, but the croppings of a raisin vineyard 
are enormous, and when from eight to ten tons of green grapes have 
been taken from the soil year after year, it is but natural that the land 
should become gradually exhausted. In Spain it is considered that 
even the richest soils require manuring after ten years of constant 
cropping with Muscats, and the same experience is likely to become 
ours in California. So far, I know of not one vineyard which has 
vielded Muscat grapes for ten continuous years and still keeps yield- 
ing as much as formerly. Yearly the crop must become Jfss, and 
finally will not be large enough to pay. The manuring of the Mus- 
catel vines is fully understood in Spain, where all kinds of manures 
are used. When home manures fail in supply, the Spaniards use 
imported fertilizers, such as Mexican phosphates, etc. This fertilizer 
brings in Spain sixty-five dollars per ton, and is brought there from 
our ?ery doors, -the Gulf of Lower California. It could be laid down 
here for, and is actually sold here now at, forty dollars per ton or twenty- 
five dollars less than in Spain; still to my knowledge only very few 
raisin-growers in Fresno use it for their vines. In one year one of these 



76 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

succeeded, with the aid of this phosphate, in raising the crop of an 
acre of Sultana grapes from a very poor yield to over eight tons. 
The grapes were grown on a piece of sandy soil of the kind well known 
to Fresno vine-growers, and which is generally considered as less 
suited to raisins, lacking in fact in more than one of the necessary 
qualities of a good raisin soil. 

It is certainly a wrong policy to crop the soil until the grape crops 
begin to fail. The soil will then be so exhausted of several of its ingre- 
dients, that it will take the most scientific treatment to bring it back 
again to what it was formerly, and it is even questionable if this could 
be done in a way that would prove profitable. Experience in Spain 
teaches that vineyards which formerly used to yield from eight to ten 
tons of green grapes to the acre now, after years of neglect, only yield 
two tons to the acre, and even with expensive manuring can in no 
way be brought back to their former fertility. On the other hand, we 
know that vineyards which have been fertilized from the beginning 
have for fifty years been kept up in apparently as good condition as at 
first; it is accordingly this method that must be recommended. The 
manure or fertilizer must be varied occasionally. In rotation, phos- 
phates, bone dust, guano, stable manure, sheep manure, lime and 
plaster of Paris or gypsum may be used, but it is best to have every 
variety of soil in the vineyard analyzed, and to apply from year to 
year that kind of fertilizer which is particularly needed. The phos- 
phates are those which will first give out in our California soils. 
Phosphates must therefore be considered as the best fertilizers we can 
use, but the quantity to be used must always be determined by a 
practical chemist. Of these chemical fertilizers, it is dangerous to use 
too much, as they might injure the vines, and from fifty to a few 
hundred pounds to the acre may in some instances suffice and pro- 
duce better crops than would four or five times as much. But, regard- 
less of chemical fertilizers, the cautious raisin-grower should endeavor 
to return to the soil as much as he possibly can out of the wastes of 
his crop. The refuse of stems and berries, which are wasted at the 
stemmer and in the packing-house, should not be burned, as is gen- 
erally the case, but returned to the vineyard, and applied one year 
on one piece of ground, and another year on some other piece. If, 
however, these wastes must be used as fuel in the dryer, etc., the 
ashes should be carefully collected and spread over the soil, and kept 
dry and shaded until thus used. 

Another most valuable fertilizer generally wasted is the trimmings. 
In our careless California farming, these trimmings of the vines are 
put in piles on the roads, outside of the vineyards, and there burned. 
Thus the ground loses the most powerful soluble salt, which would 
greatly increase the yield of grapes and the profits to the farmer. 
Where the vines are planted far enough apart, the trimmings may be 
burned between the rows of the vines without injury to them, but, when 
the vines are set close, there is no other way than to carefully collect 
the ashes and spread them evenly over the soil. Some vineyardists use 
large troughs made of galvanized iron and perforated with holes. 
These vats are drawn through the vineyard by a team, and scatter 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 77 

the ashes evenly over the soil. The vats may be so constructed that 
the cuttings are burned in them directly as they are being pulled 
along, thus saving much labor as well as ashes. Such contrivances 
will probably only prove profitable in large vineyards, where there are 
long rows and few turnings for the teams. Even the stable manure 
in our State is not used as it should be. It is hardly possible to 
understand how vineyardists can be thoughtless enough to haul loads 
upon loads of stable manure on their roads or in holes and waste 
places, while their vines adjoining are suffering from the want of 
sufficient nourishment. In the irrigated districts, this is a very com- 
mon sight, and the wet places on the road are often deep with manure 
and strongly smelling of ammonia. If the manure had been placed 
around the vines, the increase in crops would probably have been 
sufficient to enable the owner to macadamize or otherwise permanently 
fix the roads. 

IRRIGATION. 

Introductory Notes.— th& irrigation of the raisin grapes was, for sev- 
eral years, considered as a practice entirely peculiar to California, but 
as our knowledge extended it was found that, far from being anything 
at all new, it had been practiced successfully for centuries in some of 
the Mediterranean countries. We have already mentioned how irriga- 
tion is customary both in the Valencia and Denia districts, as well as in 
Greece. It is evident that irrigation there is only limited by the supply 
of water, and that there is no question about its usefulness. As 
regards the methods of irrigation in these foreign countries, we beg 
to refer to the chapters treating of these countries. Here our efforts 
shall be to consider irrigation in its relation to the following points, 
which are of more general interest to the Californian growers: Neces- 
sity of irrigating the raisin-vines ; the health of irrigated vines ; the 
bearmg quality of irrigated vines ; the quality of the irrigated grape ; 
supposed unheal thiness of irrigated vineyards; irrigation by flooding; 
irrigation by furrowing; subirrigation; seepage; drainage; irrigation 
and its influence on the soil. 

The Necessity of Irrigating the Raisin-vines. — When the irrigation of 
raisin grapes was first attempted in Fresno and Riverside, hardly any 
one was acquainted with or knew that irrigation had ever been used 
for such a purpose before, and irrigation was considered as a venture 
which did not promise well for the future. Later on it was found that 
the raisin grape really would grow and do well in some localities with- 
out irrigation, and the latter practice was accordingly condemned. 
To-day, however, the practical knowledge of irrigation is greater and 
more generally distributed, and it is now fully understood that irriga- 
tion is not only not injurious, but beneficial and necessary in localities 
where the raisin- vine will not grow or bear sufficiently without it. 
The questions then arose, When is irrigation necessary, and how 
much irrigation is required ? The first object in raisin-growing is the 
profit- a secondary object is how to so treat the vines that they will 
last as long as possible. To attain the first object, we must raise plenty 
of grapes, and when a larger quantity of good raisin grapes can be 



78 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

grown with irrigation than without it, irrigation is justifiable and 
necessary. In Spain, especially in the Denia district, irrigation of the 
raisin grapes is practiced wherever water can be had, and the same is 
the case in Greece and Italy. 

In California the tendency is now to irrigate wherever water can be 
had, and wherever it is profitable to procure it. In Fresno, Tulare and 
Kern counties, raisin grapes could not be grown without irrigation. 
These same conditions are also found in San Bernardino county, 
while in I^os Angeles and Orange counties all the best vineyards are 
irrigated, and only occasionally do we find the conditions such that 
irrigation is not absolutely necessary. In Northern California, raisin- 
vines may be grown without irrigation, but the latter is considered of 
such advantage that expensive pumping works have been erected in 
places where no other means were had for irrigating the vines. In San 
Diego county, especially in El Cajon and Sweetwater valleys, irrigation 
is not absolutely necessary, in fact it is not practiced there at all, 
although water could be had, but as a consequence the crops there are 
not as large. In Smyrna, in Asia Minor, the largest raisin center in 
the world, the raisin-vines receive no irrigation, but the unusually 
heavy rainfall of this section makes the want of irrigation less felt. 
Of course, outside of the raisin districts proper, Muscatels or other 
raisin-vines may be grown, and are grown to good advantage without 
irrigation, but the climate in those places is generally unsuited to the 
drying of the grapes. 

Should we inquire into the reasons why raisin grapes may in some 
localities be grown and actually prove profitable without irrigation, we 
find the same to depend not alone upon the rainfall of the locality, but 
principally upon such other circumstances as dew, fog, the nature of 
the subsoil, and the moisture ol the air. In Smyrna the rainfall of 
the wet season is from twenty-four to thirty-six inches annually, and 
greater than in any other raisin district. In El Cajon the rainfall is 
only half that much, and the moisture in this case must be sought 
partly in the subsoil, which is especially retentive of moisture, as well 
as in the dew, and the warm fogs from the ocean. The subsoil has 
the greatest possible influence, as in other valleys near by, where the 
fog and the dew are the same, but, where the subsoil is different, no 
raisin grapes can be grown without irrigation. Malaga is in this 
respect very similar to El Cajon and Sweetwater valleys, but it enjoys 
more rainfall than the latter places, while probably the dew and fog is 
about the same. Still in Malaga irrigation is used in a few isolated 
localities where it can be obtained, the nature of that country being 
such, that no general irrigation system is possible, and this is probably, 
more than anything else, the reason why the vines are not more gen- 
erally irrigated there. In Chile, in the valley of the Huasco, the 
Muscat vines are grown both with and without irrigation, the condi- 
tions there appearing to be very similar to those of El Cajon valley in 
San Diego county. From the above we might draw a general conclu- 
sion, that wherever the raisin- vines cannot grow without irrigation, 
and wherever water can be had in sufficient quantities, irrigation is 
practiced in order to increase the crops and to make the business more 
profitable. 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 79 

Health ayid Longevity of Irrigated Vines. — As regards the health of 
the vines, the old idea in this country that vines would suffer from 
irrigation is decidedly erroneous. The vines of Denia in Spain have 
been irrigated for eighty years or more, and are to-day the healthiest 
vines in Spain. Similarly, the Fresno vines, where the water level, as 
in Denia, is only from five to ten feet below the surface, show no signs 
of decay, while many of the raisin-vines in other parts of the State, 
especially where planted on the hillsides, show diseases which baffle 
the cultivator. I do not, of course, mean to say that irrigated raisin- 
vines are entirely free from diseases, but only that, so far, the 
healthiest and strongest raisin-vines of the world are those which are 
irrigated, and which have always been irrigated. Of course in this 
respect the Muscat grapes, as well as the currant vines, differ mate- 
rially from certain wine grapes, which as a rule have originated on 
drier soils, and which, if grown with irrigation, deteriorate and yield 
inferior fruit. The raisin-vines require much moisture, and, if this is 
not supplied in one way or another, they will suffer and prove unprofit- 
able. The same is observed in soils which rapidly lose their moisture. 
In such soils the Muscat is not at home, and its health and vigor is 
seriously impaired. 

The Bearing Quality of Irrigated Vines. — In regard to the bearing 
quality of the raisin grapes under irrigation, we know with certainty 
that the irrigated raisin-vines yield by far the most. In Valencia and 
Denia, the vines yield from five to ten tons to the acre, and so do those 
of Riverside and Fresno, while the El Cajon unirrigated vines yield 
only from one to two tons per acre. If the latter place would irrigate 
judiciously, its Muscat vines would no doubt bear as well as those of 
any other locality, I am led to this belief from what I have seen of 
irrigated grapes elsewhere in San Diego county, which were fully as 
well loaded as the heaviest vines in San Bernardino county or Fresno. 

Quality of Irrigated Grapes. — That the quality of the irrigated raisin 
grape is increased by judicious irrigation is readily seen in all irrigated 
districts, where those vines which receive their proper share of water 
produce the largest bunches and berries. But it is also evident that 
too much water will cause a deficiency of sugar in the grapes, as well 
as a lack of flavor, by which the irrigated grapes can always be distin- 
guished from those grown with natural moisture. Grapes too freely 
irrigated are not alone wanting in sugar, but also in color. Such 
grapes remain green to the end of the season, and never assume that 
amber color so valued in grapes, and which always indicates before- 
hand what raisins they will produce when properly dried. In our 
interior valleys, where the sun and the wind sometimes produce sun- 
scald of the berries, which again causes them to fall off or dry up long 
before they are properly ripe, this defect is much more frequent on 
vines which suffer from want of water than on those which have had 
enough. When the soil is not subirrigated, it is therefore advisable to 
irrigate the vines at the end of June, just before the hottest part of the 
summer arrives. Similarly, irrigation will help to swell out the berries 
if applied just before they commence to ripen. 

In conclusion we might with truth say that the raisin grapes may in 
many localities be grown without irrigation, but that in California, in 



80 THB RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

Greece and in Spain, the largest and most prosperous districts are 
those where the raisin-vines are liberally irrigated. The Muscat grape 
seems especially to love water, and, in the real raisin districts, the 
healthiest vineyards are those that are best irrigated. The berries and 
bunches are also increased in size, but not in flavor and aroma, by 
irrigation. In places where the raisin grapes will not bear without 
irrigation, the latter, of course, is a necessity. There are always 
naturally subirrigated parts, in every county or district, where artificial 
irrigation is not required. But these parts are generally confined to 
river bottoms or to natural sinks, which, so far, have played no impor- 
tant part in the raisin industry. Considered from a practical stand- 
point, irrigation of the raisin-vines is necessary in California, and, 
should it from some reason or other be made impossible, the raisin 
industry would not prove profitable or even possible, except in a few 
very limited localities. 

Much has been written in regard to the supposed unhealthiness of 
the irrigated vineyards. The malaria prevalent in some vineyards is 
no doubt caused by irrigation; but it has been amply proved in Fresno 
and elsewhere that if the grower would know from the beginning 
how to so prepare his land that there would be no stagnant pools, 
no waste water, and no swampy grounds, the so much talked of malaria 
would be as rare in the irrigated vineyards as anywhere else. It is not 
the irrigation that causes malaria, but the waste of the water, the care- 
lessness of the irrigator and the faultiness of the badly constructed 
irrigation works. After the vineyard has been irrigated a few years, 
the malaria leaves it entirely. This is the experience in Fresno where 
the vineyards, after years of irrigation, have become perfectly healthy. 

Various Methods of Irrigation. — There are several methods of irriga- 
tion now practiced in the irrigated vineyard districts. We may irri- 
gate by flooding the land or by leading the water in furrows between 
the vines. Both ways, but especially the former, may, if continued 
long enough, cause subirrigation, the most desirable state of irrigation. 
The choice of methods of irrigating does not always lie with ourselves, 
but depends upon the quantity of water at our command, the lay of the 
land, etc. Sometimes one method will in course of time give room 
to another, and again, after the lapse of a few years, continued irriga- 
tion may not be necessary or desirable. 

Irrigation by Flooding. — This method consists of flooding the land 
either by means of checks and banks, which must have been constructed 
before the vines were planted, or in simply flooding ground which 
is naturally level. In either case the land must naturally not ^ be too 
rough, and the water must be abundant, else this method cannot be 
used. It will always paj^ to engage the services of an engineer in 
preparing such ground for vines. The extra cost will be more than 
paid for in the first few years, when frequent irrigations of the vineyard 
are as necessary as they are expensive. The ditch supplying the 
vineyard should always run on the highest ground, and in no instance 
should it be run through low ground when high ground can be had, 
as the low ground maj^ in the future have to be used for drainage, 
about which we will treat further on. From the main canal, branch 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 81 

ditches should run out at right angles if possible, or if the ground 
is very uneven they may follow the highest parts. The ground 
between these ditches should be properly leveled into checks. 
With checks the irrigator simplj^ measures a piece of ground of 
any size which is surrounded by a levee or bank. This bank must 
be high enough to allow the water to cover all of the ground as soon 
as the check is filled with water from the ditch. 

To make the ground level enough, it is generally necessary to 
level it with scrapers. The more level is the surface the better, 
cheaper and quicker will be the irrigation, and no small amount of 
trouble will be avoided if this work is properly done before the vines 
are planted. Too little of this leveling is done in some places, and I 
have seen thousands of acres planted in Muscat vines which were so 
improperly leveled that the profits of the vineyard in after years would 
be seriously interfered with. To understand how this can be possible, 
we must remember what takes place when we irrigate and after we 
have irrigated. The gate in the ditch is opened, the water flows out 
and runs immediately down to the lowest part of the check. When 
this part is reached, the check begins to fill up. If the ground is 
very uneven, it may take days to fill the check, and the lower part 
will require to be covered several feet with water before it will reach 
the higher parts, which always need irrigation the most. To back it 
up so high requires also a correspondingly high levee, which again is 
more apt to break and cause trouble and expense the higher it is. After 
the water has reached the highest possible point, the flow is shut oiF, 
and the water begins to subside. The highest part of the land becomes 
dry the first, and quickly, while it may take days or even weeks to dry 
up the lowest part of the check. When at last the check is all dry it 
may be found that the lowest vines have been injured or entirely 
drowned out. When summer irrigation is used, it is absolutely neces- 
sary to have the ground level, so that when it is flooded the water will 
not reach up to the grapes, as they spoil when coming in contact with 
the water. 

The time when flooding should be used must depend upon circum- 
stances. As a rule, flooding is especially adapted to winter irrigation, 
as, when the vines are entirely dormant, they may be submerged for 
months without suffering any harm. Young vineyards may also be 
flooded in summer time, but, when the grapes begin to appear, flooding 
can only be done in the winter or when the land is absolutely level, 
but even under the most favorable circumstances many grapes are 
always lost. Some have so prepared their vineyards that a check, 
when flooded, can be drained into a lower check or into a ditch. This 
is a very good arrangement where the land is not entirely level, as it 
will cause the low places to dry up as quickly as possible. But a 
better way is to have the ground so level that the water will sink 
evenly and leave no sinks nor any high and prematurely dry places. 
There are, however, soils so composed that the water cannot sink 
through them in any reasonablj' short time. Such heavy soils must be 
surface drained after every flooding, or perhaps had best be given up 
to some other method of irrigation. But such hard or impervious 



82 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

soils are frequently improved by irrigation, and in course of time lose 
their impervious nature and become subirrigated. If the land is toler- 
ably level by nature, and there are prospects of subirrigation soon 
appearing, it may be unnecessary to level the land, and flooding with 
temporary checks may be used with advantage for the first few seasons, 
i'^urrovving will generally assist this mode of irrigation. 

Irrigation by Furrowing. — ^This method of irrigation is practiced 
where the land is not sufiSciently level to be flooded, or when the water is 
not sufficient to enable the irrigator in a short time to flood the land. 
The practice of furrowing simply consists in plowing furrows alongside 
of the vines, and then to lead the water in the furrows. This system 
is by far the one that is most practiced in Southern California, as it has 
some advantages over the flooding; it is, however, not so effective and 
cannot supply the vineyard with as much water as flooding. To use 
the furrowing system to advantage, the land must have been previously 
leveled, but not necessarily graded to an absolute level. It is enough 
to have the surface smooth and on an even grade, in order that the 
water may run from a higher point to a lower one without spreading 
or breaking out. Especially all knolls in the vineyard must be 
leveled off, and care must be taken to fill all hollows or sinks in which 
the water would otherwise collect. 

After the vines are planted, or when irrigation is necessary, one or 
more furrows are plowed on each side of the vine, and the water is 
allowed to run in them for several hours, or even days, until the soil 
is sufficiently soaked. In many places three furrows are made between 
the rows of vines, and the water is allowed to run in at one end and 
out through the other in a stream only sufficiently large to cause all the 
water to sink. Where particular nicety is required, the waste water 
which runs out at the farther end may be collected in a trough with per- 
forated holes, through which it is conducted to a ditch or lower check. 
Similarly, a long trough may be used for conducting the water to the 
land in the first instance, and allow it to run out through a number of 
small holes, one of which is situated in front of every furrow. When 
the ground is well prepared, level and with an even slope, this system 
of irrigation is very perfect, and causes but little expense and trouble 
in management. In Riverside the vines are irrigated thus every three 
or five weeks, while in Redlands less irrigation is used on old vines. 
As a rule, in Southern California the furrowing system is the accepted 
one as being best adapted to the nature of the country. The water is 
conducted both in open ditches and in pipes, and when under pres- 
sure saves much labor and expense which would otherwise be required 
for the continued construction and repair of ditches. 

The furrowing system has, however, its disadvantages. It requires 
a longer time to fill the soil sufficiently, and accordingly it takes many 
more irrigations to accomplish as much as with flooding. As advan- 
tages of this system, we might state that it requires no banks or 
levees to back up the water, and a vineyard irrigated this way can be 
kept entirely free from weeds by a few cultivations, while a checked 
vineyard must besides be cleared with hand labor, as the banks and 
checks are apt to be destroyed by cultivation. 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 83 

Subirrigatioii. — Subirrigation may be either artificial or natural. 
The artificial subirrigation has, as far as I know, only been used in a 
few vineyards in Yolo and Solano counties, the report, shortly after it 
had been established, being very flattering as regards its success. But 
of late years we have heard nothing about this kind of irrigation, and 
it is likely that some practical difficulty was encountered which could 
not be fully overcome. The artificial subirrigation consists in laying 
larger and smaller cement pipes between the rows of the vines. These 
pipes are perforated in various places, and, when filled with water 
under pressure, the water runs through the perforated holes and keeps 
the ground outside the pipes constantly moist, without causing the 
surface of the soil to get wet and weedy, and herein consist the princi- 
pal advantages of the system, as well as in the fact that rolling ground 
can be irrigated thus without being previously leveled and without 
being cut up with open ditches. The difficulty of keeping the holes 
open and of preventing the roots of the vines from entering the pipes 
is, I understand, very great and probably impossible to overcome. 
Both irrigation water and liquid manures could by this system be 
supplied to the roots of the vines directly without any waste, and, in 
cases of diseases or attacks by underground pests, medicines or insecti- 
cides could be brought to the soil with the least possible cost. 

The natural subirrigation is caused either by the whole soil filling 
up with water from the natural and original water level to the very 
top or to the roots of the vines, or from an impervious hardpan or 
clay, as subsoil, up towards the surface. As an example of the former 
we might cite the country around the irrigated plains of the San 
Joaquin valley, especially around Fresno and in Mussel Slough. Be- 
fore irrigation was begun there in 1872, the surface water was from 
sixty to seventy feet from the top east of the railroad, and from forty 
to fifty feet west of the railroad, lower down in the valley. After five 
years of irrigation it began to be noticed that the soil required less 
water. The water in the wells began to rise, and the following year 
the water stood in many places near or on the top of the surface. 
Now the whole irrigated district around Fresno has filled up with 
water to such an extent that drainage ditches have become necessary 
in some places in order to lower the water in the wet season some four 
or five feet from the surface. Many more drainage ditches will be 
required, as in wet winters the surface water in places is not only very- 
near the top, but actually forms ponds or swamps where formerly the 
ground was entirely dry. 

In the old irrigated districts, water can now be found at from six to 
ten feet in the driest season, while formerly the wells had to be from 
fifty to seventy feet deep. In the older vineyards, and even in many 
of the younger ones, no more surface irrigation is used; all that is now 
required is to allow the water to run in the main ditches, in which the 
water sinks sufficiently to keep up the supply of the evaporation of 
the ground outside. Large tracts of land which have never been sur- 
face irrigated are now sufficiently moist to grow vines to the greatest 
perfection, and many of the best vineyards have never been irrigated 
at all; in fact, nothing but drainage ditches have ever been made on 



84 run RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

the land. Whenever such subirrigation exists, the water level will be 
found higher in the winter than in the summer, and drainage should 
accompany subirrigation in nearly every instance. A subirrigation 
like the above exists in Denia and other of the Spanish districts. 
Subirrigation may be also caused by either impervious subsoils, such 
as hardpan and clay, or by spongy subsoils, which keep the water like 
a sponge. Such is the case to a limited extent in parts of San Ber- 
nardino county. At Redlands, for instance, much less irrigation is 
ncfw used than when the vines were first planted, and this fact is 
attributed to a spongy subsoil peculiarly retentive of water. A similar 
subirrigation exists in the Mussel Slough country, where the water 
rapidly fills the land and keeps it moist throughout the summer. The 
phenomenal moisture of the El Cajon land is probably also produced 
by some kind of subirrigation, either on impervious or through reten- 
tive strata; the waste water from the surrounding hills no doubt 
supplies much of the watei- appearing in the lower lands of the valle}-. 
Other valleys close by do not show this moisture, the underlying strata 
probably making subirrigation impossible with the present amount of 
rainfall. 

Seepage. — Seepage is the quality of the soil to attract moisture and 
retain it. Seepage soils attract the water from a ditch run through 
the land, the water spreading all through the soil towards all sides 
instead of sinking only vertically down. There is a distinct difference 
between such seepage soils and those that do not seep, although there 
is a gradation in the degree of the seepage, some soils seeping more 
than others. Thus the Fresno soil, or the soils on the Fresno plains, 
especially the red and sandy soils, do not seep or percolate. Vines 
planted on the sides of the ditches, or a foot or two from their banks, 
will die and dry up if not specially irrigated by bringing water to 
their very roots. Other soils, especially the river-bottom soils or the 
alluvial soils, seep or percolate in a great or less degree. They act 
like a sponge, attract water and give it away slowly, and the soil will 
be found wet for long distances from the ditch. This seepage capacity 
of the soil is partly caused by an abundance of humus or vegetable 
matter. The seepage capacity of the soil greatly increases by admix- 
tures of green vegetable matters through the plowing under of green 
crops, such as alfalfa, peas, beans, grain, etc. The value of seepage 
soils is seen especially where some uneven ground is scraped off and 
the top soil removed to low places. Such ground often becomes use- 
less for years afterwards, especially if the quantity of humus in the 
lower soils is small. Frequent irrigations will not serve to keep such 
soils moist, as the water sinks rapidly down, leaving the poor top soil 
dry. Vines planted in such places never do well, and even heavy 
manuring will not suffice to bring on a strong, healthy growth. Such 
humus-wanting soils must be treated with green crops, as stated above, 
in order to become fertile and moist. Thus seepage and subirrigation 
are often confounded. The former is caused by the retentive and 
communicative quality of the soil, while the latter is caused by the 
natural or artificial distribution of the underground water. 

Subirrigation and seepage combined make the most perfect irrigation 
for a raisin vineyard, with advantages that can in no other way be 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 85 

attained: absence of distribution ditches, which take up vahiable 
land and which cost money to keep clean from weeds ; less growLh 
of weeds on the surface of the ground ; greater mellowness of the top 
soil and less work in plowing generally; a greater and more uniform 
supply of moisture, which, instead of Ijciug near the top of the ground, 
is accumulated deeper down, thus causing the roots to go down instead 
of spreading near the surface ; no expensive irrigation, which will 
require plowing every time after the water is spread on the surface; 
a greater coolness of the ground and a lower temperature generally, 
which shows itself in a more vigorous growth of the vines, a greater 
supply of grapes and less danger from sunburn. These and many 
more are the advantages of subirrigation and seepage combined. To 
attain them in a raisin vineyard, no labor and reasonable cost should 
be spared. 

Drai7iage. — Drainage is necessary in all vineyards where large quan- 
tities of water are used for irrigation, and principally at the very time 
that subirrigation begins. Thus in Fresno county the best raisin vine- 
yards are those in which the land is both subirrigated and drained. 
When irrigation commences in any certain district, no one thinks of 
drainage as a possibility, and great carelessness is shown in locating 
ditches and other irrigation works. But in a few years, when the soil 
is full of water which finds no outlet, drainage becomes both necessary 
and desirable. A very successful and highly necessary drain has been 
constructed through a part of the Fresno district, which so filled up 
with water during the rainy winter of 1883-84 that nuich of the 
ground could not be plowed until late in the spring. The drain 
remedied the evil and drained the soil, and the vineyards grown there 
are now counted among the best and most profitable. The water thus 
drained off lowered the water level from six to seven feet. In very dry 
seasons this ditch is filled with water, and serves then to keep the 
soil moist through .seepage or subirrigation. 

Tlie Injlucnce of Irrigation on the Soil. — It is by many considered 
that irrigation helps to fertilize the soil. The spring and flood water 
contain great quantities of mud and humus, which when spread over 
the land will greatly increase its fertility. Even ordinary river water 
contains salts and other ingredients, which will fertilize the soil to no 
small degree. Another cause of the increased fertility of subirrigated 
soils is that the water which constantly evaporates carries with it 
salts, etc., from the lower strata up towards the surface, and makes 
them accessible to the roots of the vines. But, on the other hand, if 
the water or the soils contain alkalies or other destructive substances, 
these also are deposited on the surface to the great detriment of the 
vines, and often to such an extent that the vines will die or become 
sickly. Too abundant flooding may also leach out of the soil its 
soluble salts, and carry them deeper down in the ground. But if this 
soil after a while fills up witli water and becomes su])irrigated, the 
evaporation of water from the surface will gradually carry these salts 
back to the surface, when they will increase the fertility of the soil. 
Where drainage is very perfect, constant irrigation will gradually rob 
the soil of many of its soluble salts, and carry them to places where 



86 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

they will forever be out of the reach of the vines. To ascertain these 
facts and conditions, every vineyardist should have the soil analyzed 
about every five years, and too great care cannot be taken to keep the 
soil of proper strength. 

Another influence of irrigation on the soil may also be mentioned 
here. Some of the soils in the irrigated districts which were formerly 
very hard and difficult to work have in course of time changed and 
become mellow. The water has undoubtedly caused a chemical and 
mechanical decomposition of the components of the soil, which has 
caused it to continually improve. Kven certain kinds of hardpan 
have been known to dissolve when irrigated, and to change into useful 
and mellow soil, in which the vines can find nutriment. Such hard- 
pans are those which are generally found in very dark red soils; those 
in lighter soils are not so readily dissolved. 



THE RAISIN GRAPES. 

Introductory Notes. — The raisin grapes might be divided into two 
classes, —proper and genuine, such as Muscats, Sultanas and Cur- 
rants, and irregidar or inferior raisin grapes, such as Malagas and 
Feher Szagos. Now-a-days almost any kind of grapes are dried and 
sometimes called raisins,' but the proper name for them shoti^d be 
dried grapes. With these we need not here busy ourselves, as with a 
few exceptions they are of little value, and cannot be compared with 
the regular raisin grapes, either as regards quality, demand or price. 

Muscatel or Go7-do Blanco. — This variety is the best type of the raisin 
grape of Malaga. Its growth is low and spreading, with no upright 
branches in the center. Its bunches are heavy, and, when perfect, 
close and shouldered. Its berries are round and large, the greatest 
circumference being at the center. A crease is often found at the 
apex of the berry. The color is green, or, when fully ripe, amber 
green or yellow. As compared with the Muscat of Alexandria, this 
variety is distinguished, when perfect, by its low, depressed growth, 
without any upright branches in the center of the vine; by a closer 
bunch; by rounder berries, and by a thicker and firmer bloom. The 
berries set better than those of the Muscat of Alexandria, although 
both varieties suffer from the early stages of oidiura or colure. The 
Gordo Blanco is the choice raisin grape for the San Joaquin valley, 
and for the interior generally. It is the raisin grape of Malaga in 
Spain, where it is probable the variety originated. Importations of 
this variety have been made to California at various times by A. 
Haraszthy in 1861, and by W. S. Chapman in 1876. 

Muscat of Alexandria.— ^ho. growth of this variety is upright in 
the center. Its clusters, even when perfect, are never close. Its ber- 
ries are oblong and tapering, the largest circumference being near 
the apex. The color when fully ripe is amber green or yellowish 
green. The leaves of both varieties of Muscats are five-pointed, 
light green, lighter below, and do not differ materially from each 
other. Both Muscats are remarkable for their second and third 
growths, and for the large second crop on the laterals. 

The Muscat of Alexandria, as compared with the Gordo Blanco, is 
characterized by its oblong berries, and by its more upright branches 
in the center of the vine. Its growth is more straggling than that 
of the Gordo Blanco, and, planted side by side, the two varieties are 
distinctly characteristic. The Muscat of Alexandria is the favorite 
raisin grape in Southern California, where it seems eminently adapted. 
I found no other Muscat in San Bernardino and San Diego counties. 
The most magnificent bunches of this variety which I have ever seen 
were grown there only a few miles from the ocean, — bunches that 
could not be surpassed, and which certainly were equal in weight to 



88 



the; raisin industry. 



any Gordo Blanco that have ever come under my notice. A. B. 
Butler considers that the Muscat of Alexandria does equally as well 
as the Gordo Blanco in Fresno, but most growers are not ready to 
agree with him. 





1. 




A 



3. 



2.— Planting Bar (Fresno). 3.— Fresno " Sheep's-foot." 4.— Muscat of Alexandria (N. S.). 
5.— Muscatel Gordo Blanco. 

The raisin made from the Muscat of Alexandria looks smaller on 
account of its oblong form, and is less suited for facing the boxes, but 
as to other qualities, such as taste, sweetness and color, there is no 
marked difference between these two varieties of Muscats. All 
varieties of Muscats set better in moist air than where the air is very 
dry, and the moister air tends to better develop the bunches. This 
explains why, in isolated vineyards in the interior, the bunches are 
never so large as where a large number of acres of vines have modi- 
fied the often excessive dryness of the atmosphere. As to the relative 
distribution of these two varieties of Muscats in our State, it may be 
stated that the former is not based upon any particular adaptability 
of the respective varieties to the localities where they are grown. 
The Muscat of Alexandria is the older variety of the two, probably 
both in Spain as well as in California. To Valencia in Spain it was 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 89 

brought by tlie Moors from Africa, or possibly from Alexandria in 
Egypt. The Gordo Blanco again appears to be a native Spanish 
variety, especially adapted to the warmer region of Malaga or South- 
ern Spain. The Gordo Blanco is the principal grape of Malaga; 
the Muscat of Alexandria is the one grown in Valencia and Denia 
and also in Smyrna in Asia Minor. 

In California the Gordo Blanco is found around Woodland in Yolo 
county, throughout the San Joaquin valley, and in Fresno it is the favor- 
ite and almost exclusive Muscat grape. The Muscat of Alexandria is 
grown in Solano county and elsewhere in Northern California, while 
it is the exclusive grape in Riverside, Redlands, Orange county and 
El Cajon, and probably elsewhere in San Diego county or Southern 
California generally. The Muscat of Alexandria was imported by 
Colonel Agoston Haraszthy in 1852 from Malaga, and by D. M. Delmas 
some thirty-eight years ago from France. 

Ilicasco Muscat. — This variety (pronounced Uasco) resembles very- 
much the Muscat of Alexandria, of which it is probably a seedling, 
and was introduced into Chile by the Spaniards soon after the conquest. 
According to Professor E. W. Hilgard, this variety sets better than the 
Alexandria, and on that account deserves to be cultivated. It is 
strange that no attempts have been made in this country to grow it on 
a larger scale. The Huasco is undoubtedly one of the most interest- 
ing grapes, and the fact that it produces the most expensive raisins in 
the world should be a sufficient inducement to our California growers 
to at least study the variety closely. I should think that El Cajon 
valley would be the proper locality for it in this State. 

Other Varieties of Muscats. — A variety of Muscatel resembling the 
Gordo Blanco, but with more erect growth, is said to have been im- 
ported by G. G. Briggs of Davisville, Solano county. I have seen it 
growing in the vineyard of George A. Freeman of Fresno, but cannot 
distinguish its berries from those of the Gordo Blanco. The growth 
of the vine is more erect, and leaves the center of the vine rather 
uncovered and exposed. I would decidedly prefer the Gordo Blanco. 
A seedling of the Gordo Blanco originated by the author is now 
growing on the Floreal vineyard, owned by J. T. Goodman, near Fresno. 
This variety promised a great deal the first season. I have no doubt 
that, with some selection of berries and bunches, many new and valu- 
able raisin grapes could be originated in this State, varieties which 
would be especially adapted to our soil and climate. While our fruit- 
growers have produced a number of new fruits of various kinds, we 
have yet to hear of the first superior grape seedlings. According to 
the Rural Press of May 5, 1877, C. T. Ward of Haywards, Alameda 
county, raised some seedlings from Huasco seed, but what has become 
of them I do not know. Haywards would not be likely to be a proper 
place for raisin grapes, and even the best variety could not possibly 
be a success there. 

J. T. Goodman of Fresno has a Muscatel vine in his vineyard which 
ripens ten days earlier than the Gordo Blanco, but whether it is a 
seedling is not known. It may prove a most valuable variety if 
extensively grown. B. G. Stabler of Yuba City tells me that Ch. E. 



90 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

Swezy, near Marysville, has raised a seedling from an imported 
Dehesa raisin, which in size, flavor and all other qualities excels any- 
other table grape known, but the flavor of the grape does not resemble 
that of the Muscatel. I have seen raisins made from this grape, but 
they were not desirable; but as a table grape this variety is said to be 
superior. If so, this grape should be tried in different localities, 
and may prove a real acquisition. There is no doubt that other 
seedling raisin grapes have been raised in this State, and we hope in 
course of time to know all about them. 

Seedless Sultana. — This grape is decidedly one of the most import- 
ant raisin grapes known. Its bunches are very large, sometimes 
weighing five pounds each. The berries are round and seedless, the 
size of large peas, of a green color, which, when the grape ripens, 
turns bright amber yellow, with small brown spots. The leaves are 
large and very entire, and more yellowish than those of the Muscat. 
The growth of the vine is upright, with erect or climbing branches. 
This grapevine in order to bear must be pruned long, and should 
properly be staked from four to five feet high. The yield of the 
Sultana is very heavy, and as much as sixteen tons of fresh grapes 
are frequently harvested from an acre, provided the soil is the 
ver>'- best possible. The grapes begin to color and sweeten several 
weeks before the Muscat, but they become fully ripe later than this 
variety, and are on that account not as extensively grown as they cer- 
tainly deserve to be. For districts with long summers and autumns the 
Sultana will prove a very profitable and desirable grape. The native 
home of the Sultana is Asia Minor. There it is grown principally 
around Smyrna and in several of the islands in the Archipelago. In 
California only few Sultana vineyards are planted; still there is 
undoubtedly a great field for this grape where the seasons are long 
enough to allow of its perfect ripening. The raisins are light in color 
and somewhat acid, but with no particular flavor, and in this respect 
are inferior to the Muscats and the Currants. They are produced 
either by dipping, as is done in Smyrna, or by sun-drying, as we do 
in this State. If the dipping process is used, the grapes must be very 
ripe, else they will turn reddish and dark and lose quality. In Cali- 
fornia the Sultana grape does well, and only seldom produces seeds. 
In Eastern Mediterranean countries, except in the few favored spots of 
Smyrna, or in some of the Islands, this variety rapidly deteriorates 
and becomes seed-bearing, which of course entirely ruins its useful- 
ness. The Seedless Sultana was first brought to California by Colonel 
Agoston Haraszthy in 1861. 

Black Currant. — This variety is but little known in this State. The 
growth is erect and climbing. The bunches are long, narrow and 
cylindrical, with heavy .shoulders. The berries are small, of the size 
of peas, seedless and black, very sweet and with a peculiar aroma not 
found in any other variety. The Black Currant should be pruned 
short, and the young branches require staking in order to bear well. 
The home of the Black Currant is the Grecian Islands as well as Morea, 
especially around Patras. Zante, Cephalonia and Ithaca all produce 
Currants of the highest quality. 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 91 

Other Varieties of Currants. — The White Currant grown in Califor- 
nia is not the true raisin grape which produces the Currant of com- 
merce. The bunch and berry resemble the Black Currant, but differ 
in not being black, and in lacking the peculiar aroma and flavor alone 
possessed by the Black and true Currant. There are in Greece several 
other varieties of Currants, such as red and gray, but these are used 
for wine and not for raisins. The White and Red Currants were 
introduced from Crimea in 1861 by Colonel Agoston Haraszthy. 

Thompson Seedless. — This variety has been growing in California for 
many years, but has only lately come into notice. It was imported 
from Rochester, New York, from the establishment of Elwanger & 
Barry, about 1872, and was by them described as a grape from Con- 
stantinople under the name of Lady Decoverly. Thompson Seedless is 
the name given this grape by the local growers around Yuba City, and 
not the original name. I am inclined to believe that this grape is 
related to, but not identical with, the oblong, seedless grape which 
is grown around Damascus in Asia Minor, and there dried into a raisin 
of very good quality. This Damascus grape is brownish when ripe. 
Thompson Seedless is an oval grape, greenish yellow, as large as a 
Sultana, seedless, with thin skin, good but not strong flavor, and 
without that acid which characterizes the Sultana grape and raisin. 
The bunches are large, or very large, and the vine is an enormous 
bearer. As yet it is principally grown around Yuba City and 
Marysville in limited quantities, but the raisins are in good demand. 
When sun-dried and cured, these raisins are bluish and dark like 
Muscats, but narrower and more tapering, and only a quarter the 
size. Their sweetness and taste commend them for cooking purposes, 
and the bearing quality of the vine will no doubt make their growing 
profitable in all places where the seasons are too short to thoroughly 
ripen the Sultana. In Yuba this grape ripens early in August. 

Other Seedless Grapes. — In the Islands of Lipari and Pantelleria a 
coarse but seedless grape is grown, out of which a variety of Sultana 
raisin is made. We have no further notices and description of this 
variety. 

Malaga. — This is not a real raisin grape, but of late years raisins 
have been made from it and found both fair in quality and profitable 
to the grower. The Malaga is a heavy bearer of one crop of very 
large but loose bunches. There is no second crop. The berries are 
large, oval, not tapering, the flesh is meaty and solid, very sweet, but 
with no decided flavor. The skin is thick and green, when ripe 
amber yellow, with thick bloom. Raisins made of this grape are very 
large, and the bunches are also large and solid, and the berries are not 
easily torn off. When sweated, the skin becomes thinner, and the 
quality improves generally. The Malaga is a very hardy vine, not 
particular about soil, a strong grower, bears well, and its grapes ripen 
at the time of the Muscats. But, as there is no second crop, the 
vintage of the Malaga will be over long before that of the Muscats, 
and out of the way of rain or fog. This is what makes this grape so 
valuable. Four cents per pound has been paid for these raisins in 
sweatboxes for the past two years, and at that price this grape pays 



92 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

better than the Muscats. The Malaga raisins are also very heax-y and 
solid. I am satisfied that there will be a good demand for this raisin, 
especially among consumers, who prefer a bunch raisin, but who 
do not care to pay for the expensive packing which is necessary to 
preserve the Muscat bunches. The Malaga raisin could be sold in bulk, 
and still would not break up. The Malaga grape is grown in many 
places in California, and is used principally as a table grape; it 
has only been cured and dried into raisins in Fresno. According to 
A. B. Butler, this grape is grown in Malaga for table purposes. 

Feher Szagos. — Feher Szagos raisins have been in the market for 
several years, and have brought in sweatboxes from three to three and 
a half cents per pound. This grape is a heavy bearer and grower, 
branches erect but slender, leaves glossy, entire, bunches medium to 
small, pointed and solid. The berries are greenish amber, medium, 
oval, pointed, with thin skin, and few and small seeds. The flesh is 
not firm, but dries well, and when dried the raisin is very good, with 
a peculiar flavor of its own. They are only used for cooking, but are 
nevertheless rather good raisins to eat, and their seeds are so soft that 
they are not objectionable. The bearing quality of the Feher Szagos 
is very heavy, as much as sixteen tons of green grapes having been 
raised to the acre, and from ten to twelve tons is a common yield. It 
ripens with the Muscat, and the vine bears only one crop. At three 
cents per pound, the Feher Szagos is a profitable grape. The native 
home of this variety is Hungary or Southern Austria, the name 
meaning, in Hungarian, White Jack. In Fresno it is grown quite 
extensively, having originally been planted as a wine grape. As such 
it is highly valued, producing an abundance of highly flavored sherry. 

Other Raisin Grapes. — In Asia Minor, the Grecian Islands, Morea, 
Italy, Spain and Morocco, there are grown a number of varieties of 
grapes which are cured into raisins and sold as such. Many of these 
are little, if any, better than our dried grapes, while others again are 
superior, more resembling the regular raisins. Among the latter we 
have the Spanish Black and Red, and the Smyrna and Turkish Black 
and Red. Some of them belong to the Muscat family, probably resem- 
bling Black and Red Muscats, but of these varieties we have no 
particular information, and our growers will probably not lose much 
by avoiding a more intimate acquaintance with them. 



DISEASES AND INSECT PESTS. 

The following short account of the diseases and insect pests is not intended to be exhaustive, 
and is only intended to refer to the raisin districts of our state. I have not included accounts of 
the phylloxera nor of other insects or fungi which do not exist in these districts, but which may 
be troublesome in other parts of the State. Strictly scientific descriptions have purposely been 
left out, but I have endeavored to make the popular account as correct and as condensed as 
possible. Of insects and fungi I have only enumerated those which are of importance through 
the damage they occasion from time to time. Those which prey on the vines, but which cause no 
great damage, and which the grower need not prepare himself to fight, have here been left out. 

POWDERY MILDEW OR UNCINUI.A. 

General Notes. — This disease of the grapevine is caused by the 
growth of parasitic fungus known in Europe as Oidium Tuckeri, 
and in this country as Uncinula spiralis or powdery mildew, I am 
satisfied the two names signify the same fungus, only the European 
form has never been found as highly developed as the American one, 
which has on that account received a name of its own. If the two are 
identical, then the European Oidium, which for many years caused 
the destruction of the transatlantic vineyards, was imported to that 
country from this. The Uncinula spiralis is undoubtedly native on 
our indigenous vines. 

Characteristics. — The mildew appears in two different stages, one in 
the spring when the vines are in blossom, the other again later in the 
summer when the fruit is more advanced. The first stage of the 
mildew resembles a fine cobweb spun between the flowers of the bunch. 
If allowed unrestricted sway, the flowers will drop off, the fruit will 
never set, or set only imperfectly, and the crop will be a great loss or 
even a total failure. Generally the inexperienced vineyardist does not 
perceive the mildew until too late. A slight touch to the vine will 
then bring down all the young fruit or blossoms like a shower, and 
the stem of the bunch will be seen to be entirely bare, or with only a 
few scattered berries. This form of the Uncinula mildew has not 
been as scientifically investigated as would be desirable, and nothing 
is known as regards its development. It is possibly a primary genera- 
tion and early stage of the later Uncinula. I believe this form of 
the mildew is identical with the disease which is called Colure by the 
French, and which is characterized by the dropping of the young, 
undeveloped grapes. The first appearance of this mildew is always 
accompanied by white, salty excrescences on the edges of the grape 
leaves. Whether they are directly or indirectly connected with the 
fungus is not known. 

The later form, the powdery mildew, and the form which has given 
this mildew its name, appears later in the season, when the grapes are 
half grown or more. It then takes the shape of fine powder-like 
patches or blotches on the upper side of the leaves, stems or berries. 
These spots are of a dull gray or whitish gray color, and smell strongly 
of mold or mushrooms. If these mildew spots when young are 



94 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 



rubbed smooth, especially on the green stems or berries, we see below 
them, in the epidermis of the vine, the mycelium or stem of the fungus 
spreading in all directions from a central point, like the roots of a tree 
or plant. This part of the mildew corresponds with the stem and root 
of a plant, while the upper, powdery part is the one which produces 
the spores or the seed, conidia and peritheca, all of which are repro- 
ductive organs. The grapes thus attacked gradually dry up or crack 
open. The leaves are eaten through and dry up, and the whole plant 
becomes badly diseased, and may even die. 




Powdery Mildew (Oidium Form), Greatly Magnified. 

History and Distribution. — The powdery mildew or Oidium was 
observed for the first time in the year 1845 in hothouses in England. It 
immediately began to spread, and in a few years infested all the vine 
districts of the Old World. Before any remedy had been discovered, 
many vine districts were so injured that they have not since been able 
to recover. Thus in 1850 and 1851 France suffered greatly from this 
mildew, and the Island of Madeira, which for three hundred years had 
produced the finest wines, had its grapevines so injured that they up to 
this time have not again produced as good a quality of grapes as before 
the advent of the disease. The Grecian Islands as well as Morea were 
also visited by the powdery mildew, and though the latter is now kept 
in control, the general opinion is that the quality of the currants is 
not as high as it was before the mildew appeared. Now there is 
probably no place in the Old World where grapes are not attacked by 
this mildew, although some places are injured much more than others. 
Adjoining vineyards are often differently attacked, some being even 
entirely free, while others are visited yearly. Young vines are less 
attacked than old ones, and in favorable places the mildew seldom 
infests vines before they are two or three years old. Elevated places 
and localities exposed to winds and cold are generally attacked by the 
first stages of this oidium, while its second or last stage prefers low, 
damp places exposed to dew or fog. 

The American form of the powdery mildew or Uncinula spiralis differs 
in some respects from the European Oidium, not as to its effects, but 
as to its microscopical characteristics. The Oidium occurs in Europe 
only with certain generative organs called gonidia, while the American 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 95 

Uncimda also develops so-called peritheca. It is more than probable 
that both fungi belong to the same species, but until these perithecal 
organs have been found on the European Oidium, the proper name for 
our mildew must be Uncimda, and not Oidium. It is also probable 
that the Uncimda fungus is a native of this continent, and that it from 
here has spread to Europe, where the natural conditions are such that 
only the gonidial form of the fungus has been able to develop. In 
general appearance and in their effects the Uncinula and Oidium are 
identical. 

The Oidium appears sooner on poor soil and on exhausted vines, and 
vines in which the j9ow of the sap for some reason or other has been 
checked are more subject to the mildew than those which are yet 
in full growing vigor. Elevated vines on trellises which are much 
exposed, and vines which are so covered up that the air has little access, 
are the first ones to be attacked, and those which will suffer the most. 
The powdery mildew affects all varieties of grapes, but some kinds 
more than others. The Muscats are among those which suffer consid- 
erably, and if not sulphured would in severe cases neither set nor 
bear suitable grapes. The Malaga is less affected, and so is the Sul- 
tana. In new districts the Uncinula does not appear until the vines are 
older. Thus in the Fresno district the earliest vines did not suffer from 
mildew until they became five j^ears old, but now the mildew would de- 
stroy the grapes every year, in case they were not treated with sulphur. 

Remedies. — The most common and perhaps the best remedy is pow- 
dered sulphur. The latter is applied either with the dust can or 
' ' dredger, ' ' or with bellows. The dust can is used when the vines or 
vine shoots are yet small, and the bellows when the vines are larger. 
The first sulphuring should be done when the young shoots are six 
inches long, immediately before the bloom, and the second time when 
the berries are well set. Sulphuring as a regular vineyard operation 
will be more fully discussed further on. 

DOWNY MILDEW OR PERONOSPORA. 

General Notes. — The downy mildew is a fungus known botanically 
as Peronospora viticola. Its native country is the United States, but its 
greatest damage is done in Europe. It appears as white, downy 
spotS' on the underside of the grape leaves, which are gradually 
destroyed, and later on attacks the berries, which shrivel and spoil. 
In California the downy mildew occurs frequently on wild native 
grapevines, but only very rarely on the cultivated Asiatic vines. 
Dr. H. W. Harkness, the eminent mycologist, found it only once on 
cultivated vines in the Sacramento river bottom. These vines were 
growing close to native vines, from which the fungus had spread. 
There is no fear that this fungus will ever spread and cause damage in 
our State as long as the vineyards are given plenty of air. In France 
the Peronospora has caused much damage, but is now being com- 
bated with bluestone and lime solutions, according to the follow- 
ing formula: Slake thirty pounds of lime in seven and a half gallons 
of water, also mix sixteen pounds of bluestone (copper sulphate) in 
twenty-five gallons of water. Mix the two together, and either sprinkle 



96 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 



the foliage with it, or dilute it further with say five hundred gallons of 
water and spray the vine leaves on both the upper and lower sides. 
According to Dr. Harkness the efficiency of this spraj^ cannot always 
be relied on. So far no other fungi have appeared in the raisin districts 
of this State, nor have we reason to fear that any will attack the vines. 




Downy Mildew (Peronospora), Greatly Ma^ified. a. The Fungus Growing out of a Stoma 

of the vine Leaf. c. Transversal Section of Vine Leaf, showing Fungi 

and its Tuberous Mycelium. 



THE VINE PLAGUE. 

Characteristics. — ^The first, or at least the most characteristic signs 
of this disease appear especially after a summer rain, or after the first 
fall rain. The leaves then become spotted with yellow. The fol- 
lowing season these yellow spots appear as if fused together, and 
many leaves become entirely yellow, except the veins, which stand out 
bright green. Some leaves are invaded by the yellow from the edges, 
while the veins as before remain green. These yellow spots soon turn 
brown, the leaves dry up and curl slightly backwards and finally fall 
off, leaving the canes bare. During the very first appearance of the 
vine plague, many leaves turn brown and dry up in certain spots in the 
vineyard without the previous appearance of any yellow spots. The 
drying of the leaves proceeds either from the center of the spots, or 
from the margin of the leaves, destroying both the leaves and their 
veins. Later on in the fall a new crop of leaves appear, but these 
leaves are small or very small, bright green and sickly, and do not 
continue to develop after they have reached a certain size, different in 
different vines. In red varieties of grapes, the yellow spots in the 
leaves gradually turn red or claret colored, often resembling the most 
beautiful autumn leaves. In districts where the disease is common, 
these leaves are generally known as calico leaves on account of their 
peculiar markings. 

The canes do not attain their regular growth, and fail to mature in 
the fall, or mature only in spots, the balance of the wood remaining 
dull green. The inner parts of the canes are, as a rule, more mature 
than the tips. Very often only one or two joints nearest the stem 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 97 

mature, and in bad cases no part of the canes mature, but at the 
advent of the rain turn black and die. Late in the fall the tips of the 
green canes turn black, dry up and snap off like glass when touched. 
The pith turns in the older canes dark brown, dries up prematurely and 
dies, while in very young canes the pith remains watery like a semi- 
transparent jelly. 

Many vines have no mature wood when the leaves have fallen in the 
autumn, while others again have some. While the spotted leaves may 
appear all over the vineyard, the diseased canes appear on vines in 
spots, these spots in the vineyard growing larger year after year. 
A dead vine may be seen in the midst of healthy ones, while a healthy 
vine, on the other hand, may remain in the midst of dead ones. It takes 
generally several years to kill the vines, and some varieties are hardier 
than others. Some Muscats may succumb in one year, while some 
will last for three years or more. The roots remain alive and healthy 
longer than any other part, and, when the top of the vine has already 
died, it is common to see the root send up a healthy sucker, which, 
however, in its turn, will become diseased and die. It is likely that 
the vines in some districts will suffer more than in others, and in places 
the vines may not become seriously injured by the disease. 

The berries on badly diseased vines do not develop, but shrivel up 
or remain sour, and in some cases dry up entirely. In others, again, 
they acquire a mawkish taste, lose flavor and sweetness, and make 
only inferior or bad raisins. These many different characteristics of 
the plague depend evidently on the stage of infection. They do not 
follow each other in any certain succession, nor do they all appear on 
the same vine. Some vines show one face of the disease, other vines 
show another, and the observer must have been previously acquainted 
with the disease before he can readily recognize it. 

Nature and Cause. — The cause of the vine plague is not known. 
No deadly fungus has so far been found on the vine, nor has any other 
deadly parasite been found on the diseased vines. In California the vine 
plague has been studied by N. B. Pierce, of the Agricultural Depart- 
ment at Washington. He suggested once that the disease was of 
bacterial nature, but has not proved his theory, his investigations not 
yet being finished. Mr. E- Dowlen has also been investigating this 
disease, and at one time thought it caused by a fungus, which, how- 
ever, was proved later by Dr. H. W. Harkness to belong to the non- 
injurious kind. No insects of any kind prey on the vines in sufficient 
numbers to cause the serious symptoms of the vine plague. -'"^ Whatever 
may be the true cause of the vine plague, certain it is that it resembles 
in its advent and spreading such diseases in men as cholera, yellow 
fever or the Oriental plague. The vine plague appears to be especially 
promoted by warm, moist air and rain, but it is not confined to damp 
places, nor has it as yet been ascertained in what relation it stands to 
locality and climate. 

*The most iuteresting and correct account of the vine plague yet publishefl is 
found in an essay on "The Mysterious Vine Disease," by Newton B. Pierce, read 
before the State Horticultural Convention, at Los Angeles, March, 1S90, and pub- 
lished in California — A Journai, op Rurai, Industry, May 10, 1890 ; Vol. 3, 
No. 18. 



98 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

In California it first made its general appearance in Anaheim in 
Orange county, in the month of August, 18S4, when vineyards of old 
Mission vines suddenly stopped growing, and the grapes failed to color 
and ripen, while many of the vines died the same 3'ear. The plague 
attacks in preference vines growing on poor, sandy or alkaline soil, or 
in vineyards underlaid with hardpan. The weak vines succumb the 
first of any. This is the reason why so many vineyardists doubt the 
existence of any particular disease, contributing the poor condition 
of the vineyard to anything else than the true cause. 

N. B. Pierce, who has now spent a year in studying the vine plague, 
has found many similarities between it and the mal nero of Italy; but 
the descriptions of the foreign investigators are both contradictory and 
insufficient, and, without a personal investigation of the Italian or 
French vines, the identity of our vine plague with any foreign disease 
cannot be established. It is to be hoped that the United States Con- 
gress will make such investigations possible. At present we do not even 
know whether the vine plague is original in this country or whether it 
was imported from foreign countries. The general opinion in the first 
attacked district is that the disease was imported there with grape- 
vines brought from Europe. So far I have not been able to ascertain 
when and by whom such vines were imported, but I am satisfied that 
in the course of time it will be found that foreign grapevines were 
imported to the vineyards where shortly afterwards this disease first 
appeared. 

Damages. — The damages caused by the vine plague may be summed 
up as follows: The leaves turn spotted and yellow, finally dry up and 
fall off. The canes fail to mature, or mature only in spots. Later 
in the fall, they die from the tips, which turn black and become 
brittle. The berries either dry up or shrivel up, and fail to mature, 
or at any rate become mawkish or bitter. The yield becomes less and 
less every year, although, the first year that the vines are touched by 
the disease, the yield is often unusually large. In severe cases the 
vine dies in from one to three years, but a few may linger longer. 

Remedies. — The vine plague has existed in this State for six or eight 
years, but as yet few, if any, efibrts have been made to extinguish it, 
and only during the last year have any experiments been carried on. The 
solutions of bluestone and lime which many expected would prove 
beneficial to the vines attacked by the plague have, in my opinion, 
done little or no good. Spraying the vines when in full foliage with 
the I X ly compound greatly benefits the vines, and proves a powerful 
stimulant and the best remedy yet employed. 

IvEAF-HOPPER {Erythroneura conies'). 

Characteristics. — ^This pernicious little pest is a bug which multiplies 
in enormous quantities and sucks the sap out of the vine leaves. 
Many use the name of thrips to denote this insect, but this is incor- 
rect, as the thrips is an entirely different, much smaller, insect, which 
so far has never been injurious to the vines of this coast. In size the 
leaf-hopper is, at maturity, about one-tenth of an inch. In color it is 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 99 

yellowish white, with a few red spots. When the insect approaches 
maturity, it jumps, but the undeveloped insect or larva only crawls, 
principally on the underside of the vine leaves, where their cast-oflF 
skins can be seen in all stages and sizes. The eggs are laid in 
the veins of the leaves. The glossy globules which are always seen 
on leaves where the leaf-hopper is found are not the eggs, as has 
been supposed by many, but is only the vomit which, when irri- 
tated, the hopper throws out either as a defense, or because it 
desires to rid itself of an unnecessary burden. The leaf-hopper 
hatches at least two times, or possibly three times, during the sum- 
mer. Many of the insects remain over during winter time. They 
feed on almost anything, such as aljilerilla (Erodhini), etc., but are 
especially fond of the grapevines, and even in the early spring flock 
onto the young vine shoots, leaving the less desirable weeds. In some 
localities this insect is known variously as the white fly, the vine-hop- 
per, or incorrectly as the thrips. 

Damages. — The hopper punctures the leaves and causes them to dry 
up and fall, thus exposing the grapes to the hot sun. The excrement 
of the hoppers also covers the grapes largely, and spoils their appear- 
ance and keeping quality, at least as table grapes. It is principally 
the table grapes and wine grapes which are injured by this insect; the 
former are made unfit for shipment, and the latter do not color well 
when deprived of their leaves. If the grapevines are kept growing, 
the grapes are less injured, and some growers even contend that the 
hopper is advantageous, as it causes the leaves to fall and the grapes 
to mature. 

Distribution. — It is not known whether the leaf-hopper is a native 
of California, and I hardly believe it is. It does not exist in Southern 
California, but in Northern California and in the San Joaquin valley 
it is common. In the grape districts of Southern California there is 
found another variety of leaf-hopper almost twice the size and of a 
brilliant green color, which only once appeared in such quantity as to 
do any damage at all. Generally it is quite rare. The Erythroneura 
comes, however, occurs in countless numbers, and often rises in clouds 
when the vines are approached. In some years it is less common than 
in others, and after having been plentiful for several years gradually 
diminishes in quantity, but never disappears entirely. 

Remedies. — Pasturing the vineyards with sheep as soon as the grapes 
are picked is very beneficial. The sheep destroy both hoppers and 
leaves, and the following season always finds the hoppers greatly 
diminished in numbers. The sheep do no injury to low-pruned vines, 
and in Fresno many vineyardists pasture their vines regularly every 
year in October and November, or as soon as the grapes are picked 
and the vineyards are made accessible. 

The gauze bell consists of a bell-shaped cover made of wire netting, 
large enough to cover the vine. The inside of the bell is sprayed with 
petroleum, and then turned over the vine. A shake is then given the 
vine, when many leaf-hoppers will fly up and stick in the petroleum. 
It will only pay to use this remedy on table grapes; for raisin grapes 
it is too expensive. 



100 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

RED SPIDER. 

Characteristics. — Red or yellow mites are quite frequently injurious 
to grapevines. These mites are small, almost microscopical, and 
appear in enormous quantities on both sides of the leaves, especially, 
however, on their under side. They cover the leaves, and even the 
ground of the vineyard, with a thick cobweb, in which they live and 
hatch. Dry air and heat promote the wellbeing of the mites, and 
hasten the injury they do to the vine leaves, which soon dry up and 
check the growth of the vines. On the contrary, dew and moisture 
destroy the red mites in a short time, and in places near the coast they 
are seldom very injurious. 

Kennedies . — Sprays of various kinds, such as whale-oil soap, resin 
sprays, etc., have been used. Frequent spraying with pure water 
will destroy the mites, but they will multiply again if the climate 
is favorable. The best success is had with a spray of a compound 
known as the I X L compound, which is used in the proportion of 
five pounds of the compound to thirty gallons of water. One good 
spray will destroy both the mites and their eggs, 

CATERPII^IvARS. 

Characteristics. — The caterpillars which trouble the raisin grapes are 
confined to three or four kinds. The most common and also the most 
destructive are the very large larvae of the sphinx moth. The com- 
mon grapevine sphinx (JPhilampelus achtzmoii) is a large larva, incor- 
rectly called a worm, which is, when full grown, over three inches 
long. The color varies from bluish green to brown, with several 
lighter stripes on each side. The head is truncate, and the tail is 
furnished with a curved horn. The pupa hibernates in the soil below the 
vines, and is about half the size of the full-grown caterpillar. The full- 
grown moth is about two inches long by two and one-half inches 
between the outstretched wings. The eggs are laid by the moths on 
the leaves of the vines. Two broods of caterpillars appear yearly 
under favorable conditions, or else only one brood, which generaly 
appears in the end of July, The caterpillars grow with great rapidity, 
and attain their full size in a few weeks. The pupce hibernate in the 
soil and hatch the following summer. 

Another large grapevine caterpillar is the Deilephila striata, which 
is about the same size as the Achcsmon. The moth has more pointed 
wings, with narrow stripes, and the larva is brighter colored, often 
yellowish green, with several colored stripes on the sides. The eggs 
are not laid on the vines, but on the weeds on the vacant lands outside 
the vineyard, especially on species of Epilobimn, but also on other 
weeds, and they hatch and feed on them. The caterpillars feed in 
ordinary years only on the weeds on which they are bred, but in other 
years which are especially favorable to their enormous increase they 
migrate to the vineyards and feed on the vines at the most alarming 
rate. The caterpillars of both the above large moths vary in color 
from green to brown or violet brown, but as a rule the Deilephila is 






pSY '":->' ".j^ «-?■;. ,^H J * . ^ 










THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 101 

more brightly colored than the Achamoyi. The former is more active 
and often travels in enormous numbers, when it is called the army- 
worm. The Achcemo7i is more blunt at both extremities, the head 
being almost truncate. 

Army-worms are smaller caterpillars, about one inch or more in 
length, which breed on the outside weeds, and which, when feed be- 
comes scarce, migrate to the vineyards and feed on the vines. These 
caterpillars are the larvae of smaller moths of various genera such as 
Prodenia and others. 

Cutworms are other caterpillars of moths of the genus Agrotis, which 
feed on the branches of the vines, especially in the night-time, and in 
the daytime bury themselves in the soil beneath the vine. They are 
generally a gray or leathery color, while the army-worms are more 
violet and darker. 

Damages. — The damages from these various caterpillars are some- 
times very large. Some years they occur in enormous quantities, and 
hundreds of tons of them may then be picked from a vineyard of a 
hundred acres of vines. The leaves are eaten by them, and the grapes 
are either scalded by the sun or do not attain their sweetness and 
coloring. Sometimes these various caterpillars are very common and 
destructive for one or two years in succession, after which they disap- 
pear and do not return to trouble the vines again for many years. 

Remedies. — The great caterpillars, after they have once infested the 
vineyard, can be destroyed by picking. A gang of men or boys should 
be furnished with buckets, which are besmeared on the inside with 
coal-oil. The caterpillars are picked and dropped in the buckets, from 
which they cannot crawl out, and when the buckets are half filled they 
may be emptied into trenches and covered up with soil. 

Many use small scissors, with which the caterpillars are cut in 
twain while sitting on the vines. This will do for wine grapes, which 
are grown higher above the ground, but will hardly be proper on the 
low Muscat vines, as the contents of the caterpillars are apt to soil the 
grapes. 

I have used Buhach sprays with great success. Ten pounds of 
Buhach, with a hundred gallons of water, brought the caterpillars 
down from the vines in forty-five minutes after spraying. As some, 
however, recovered, it is best to kill as many as possible of those 
which fall to the ground by punching them with a stick. The cost of 
Buhach is, however, great, and the difficulty of encountering favorable 
weather is such that this remedy is not apt to be extensively used. 

When the vineyards are threatened by the invasion of the army- 
worms, or by the striped Deilephila caterpillar, the best remedy consists 
in trenching. A narrow trench, say one foot or more wide and two 
feet deep, with perpendicular sides, should immediately be dug around 
the vineyard. If water is at hand, fill the trench with water, on which 
some coal-oil may be poured, — enough to cause a film on the surface. 
If no water can be had, a log or scantling may be continually dragged 
up and down the furrow or trench, so as to crush the caterpillars before 
they can crawl out. In many places, however, the trench alone will 
do the work, as the caterpillars will generally not be able to get up the 



102 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

other side of the trench. What few crawl up can easily be kept down 
by hand-picking. 

If certain attractive flowers, such as honey-suckles or petunias, are 
planted on a small bed in the vineyard, say near the house, the moths 
will come to them to feed from all the surrounding neighborhood. 
Only one small bed should be planted on every vineyard. A boy with 
a butterfly net, posted at each flower bed at sundown, can catch hun- 
dreds of moths every evening, and considerably reduce their number 
and prevent them from breeding. 

BLACK-KNOT. 

Characteristics. — The woody or spongy excrescences which appear on 
the vines, and which are known as black-knots, are really only a wart- 
like growth, the origin of which is entirely unknown. It is supposed 
that an insufficient outlet for the sap in the spring caused by too 
close pruning is the chief cause. Certainly closely pruned vines are 
more subject to the black-knot than long pruned vines, but on the other 
hand neglected vines which have had no cultivation, and which accord- 
ingly could hardly have had too rapid a flow of sap, sufier more than 
any others. The woody warts appear quite frequently on the ends of the 
spurs of the old wood, or on places of last year's growth which have 
been wounded or injured in some way, but never on the green wood. 
They vary in size from that of a pea to that of lumps weighing several 
pounds. When present in small quantities, the warts cause no injury, 
but when they become larger the vines may even die. These black- 
knots always die with the year, and never survive to the next sea- 
son. At the end of the season, they burst open and then often dis- 
play black spores of fungi, which, however, are only parasitical growths 
on the already decayed wood, and not the cause of the disease. As I said, 
it is generally supposed that the flow of sap is during spring time so 
great that it ruptures the cells of the vine and causes the warts to 
form. Under the microscope, however, there are no such ruptured cells 
visible. It is more natural to suppose, that through the accumula- 
tion of sap an irritating poison is originated, which causes the warty 
growth to form in a manner similar to the formation of galls. On 
sandy soil the black-knot is the most common, probably on account of 
the earliness and the natural warmth of this kind of soil. 

Remedies. — So far no decidedly successful remedy has been found. 
Some growers advise leaving plenty of spurs on the vine, so as to give 
a sufficient outlet to the sap, but it remains to be seen if this will 
mitigate the evil. If the black-knot should be veiy destructive, a cut- 
ting out of the same in summer time while they are forming woiild 
be beneficial. This could best be done in June and July. Mixtures 
of coal-oil and lime, etc., have been used during the winter after the 
vines were already pruned, but, as the black-knot is then already dead» 
no advantages can result from this remedy. 

GRASSHOPPERS. 

General Notes. — ^While grasshoppers cannot be considered as a 
common pest in the vineyard, still they are at times greatly destructive. 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 103 

There has been during the last sixteen years two such invasions of 
grasshoppers in the California raisin districts. The grasshoppers are 
of many species, some seventeen kinds having been recognized one 
season. They all breed in the waste or unplowed ground outside 
the vineyard, and when full-grown invade the vines. This fact can be 
taken advantage of to destroy them. 

Remedies. — The waste lands for a half mile at least all around the 
vineyard should be plowed and harrowed in the early spring. This 
will destroy the eggs of the grasshoppers, and the fallow land will serve 
as a barrier over which the grasshoppers do not readily pass. 

If the vineyards are so situated that the weeds or natural vegetation 
on the land surrounding the vines can be burned for half a mile or 
more, this will also prove a certain barrier for the hoppers. 

A mixture of fifteen pounds of white arsenic with eighty pounds of 
bran and twenty pounds of middlings, moistened with enough water 
to make a paste, will be eaten by the grasshoppers. The paste is 
spread on bits of shakes or shingles and distributed all around the 
vineyard, and later on in the vineyard. It may also be smeared on 
fences or trees. The grasshoppers will eat it readily, and can thus be 
successfully destroyed. If this method is used in time, the advancing 
army of the pest can be kept back or destroyed at the very entrance of 
the vineyard. As another remedy, a spray is recommended consisting 
of one ounce of Paris green, one hundred gallons of water, and two 
pounds of paste. This is sprayed on the trees or vines, and is said to 
kill the grasshoppers effectively without injuring the fruit. 



THE RAISIN VINEYARD. 

PI.ANTING. 

Distances for Muscat Vines. — An examination of the various vine- 
yards in any or in all the different raisin districts will not help us 
much in deciding upon how far apart the vines should be set, as most 
vineyards have been planted by men of no previous experience in the 
raisin business, and when that experience was at last acquired the 
vineyards were already established and could not easily be changed. 
In planting, we are too apt to do as other people do without first 
inquiring from them if their experience has not taught them anything 
else, and if they would not do otherwise if they had to commence over 
again. For years the standard distances between raisin-vines have 
been eight by eight feet. Of late years this distance was considered 
too small, as our soil was supposed to be so rich, that all that was 
required, in order to get large crops, was to give the vines plenty of 
room. Many vineyards have been set nine by nine, nine by ten, ten 
by ten, or even ten by twelve and twelve by sixteen feet. The effect 
has, however, been different from that which was expected. Instead 
of producing larger crops, those vines which were given more room 
produced only more wood and more leaves. They followed that law 
of nature, which causes any animal or vegetable to grow luxuriantly 
when overfed, and which, on the contrary, causes seed and fruit to 
form when the vegetable system is restricted to certain proportions, 
which, of course, we can only determine by actual experience. By giving 
the vines less space, some inconvenience will be experienced in working 
the soil, and in drying the crop between the rows. On that account 
some vineyards have been planted with the vines closer one way than 
the other, thus giving plenty of room in which to work the soil, while 
on the other hand sufficiently confining the vines in order to cause 
them to bear well. I therefore now recommend that the vines be set 
four and a half by eleven, five by ten and a half, or five by eleven feet. 
The first would probably be my choice. I claim for this system many 
advantages, and beg intending growers to carefully consider the follow- 
ing points: 

It gives us more vines to the acre, which means more grapes to the 
acre, as long as the land is of the best quality, and no raisin grapes 
should ever be planted on inferior soil, or at least the soil should be 
sufficiently rich to supply plant food to the greater number of vines. 

It makes the working of the soil cheaper, and fully one-third more of 
the work can be done by two-horse plows. The single-horse work can 
be confined to plowing a furrow on each side of the vines, and to running 
a cultivator crosswise. As the number of rows in this system is less, 
it also follows that less single-team work is needed. 

The vines protect themselves from the hot sun and hot winds which 
cause sunscald. The short distances should be in the direction of the 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 105 

hot wind, if any there be, or in the direction of east and west if there 
are no hot winds in the district. The spaces between the rows will 
thus catch the morning sun, which is of importance when we dry on 
trays between the vines. 

Less roads will be needed in the vineyard, as the larger distance is 
sufficient to enable any teams to pass between every row of vines, and 
distribute trays, boxes, etc., without interfering with the vines. The 
saving thereby of labor in carrying the boxes and trays is quite an 
item in vineyards where the vines are planted say eight by eight 
feet or closer. 




Land Scrapers. 

The trimmings of the vines can be burned in the vineyard between 
the rows, and will thus help to fertilize the soil. Besides, the expense 
of hauling the trimmings away will be saved. 

The Marking Out of a Vineyard. — As any practical horticulturist 
knows how to stake out an orchard or vineyard, a minute description 
is not here needed. I will only indicate the most important points. 
Cut a large number of small pegs, one inch or so square and a foot or 
so long. Next get two lines of twisted wire, each say 150 feet long. 
Mark off on one wire every five feet by inserting a small, bright copper 
wire in the twist, and wind it around the iron wire three or four times, 
enough to show the place. On the other wire mark off similarly every 
ten or eleven feet, always supposing these are the distances decided 
upon. Now stretch one of the wires along one end of the future vine- 
yard and call this line the base line No. i . Set a peg close to every 
copper ringlet, on the side of the wire away from the vineyard. When 
done, stretch the other wire. No. 2, at a right angle with the former, 
and set pegs similarly. Remove wire No. i from base line No. i and ' 
stretch it at the end of wire No. 2, parallel to the base line. Call this 
base line No. 2. Set pegs as before every eight feet. It is now evident 
that, by stretching successively the wire No. 2 between the pegs set on 
the two base lines, and by setting cuttings or rooted vines close to the 



106 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 



copper ringlets on the wire line, perfectly straight and even rows can 
be had in every direction. 

Too much stress cannot be laid on this work. Remember that the 
vineyard is to last for a lifetime or more, and that any careless work 
will ever be an eyesore and a drawback. Unsightly vineyards, care- 
lessly staked out, are never worth as much as those carefully planted, 
where every row is straight, and where plowing, cultivating and other 
farming and vineyard work can be performed without meeting any 
obstacles in the way of crooked rows, or of vines standing out of line. 
Only too frequently vineyard rows are plowed out, and the cuttings 
are "slapped" in anyway in order to get the work quickly done. 
In after years, when the proprietor's taste and experience has improved, 
he finds that his reputation as a careless or ignorant grower cannot be 
changed; for the vineyard is there to last, and to tell the tale of early 
ignorance or neglect. 





>ti. 




i-a, b, c, d. — vineyard Tools used in the Currant Vineyards of Zante. 

Relative Vahie of Cuttings and Rooted Vines. — Cuttings and rooted 
vines have their advocates, but the majority of vineyardists are now 
in favor of planting rooted vines, and I would myself choose the latter 
every time. As, however, rooted vines and cuttings are both likely 
to be used as long as vines are planted, a few words in regard to their 
respective merits may be of general interest. In planting cuttings, 
we are never sure that they will all grow. Cuttings if cared for gen- 
erally do well, but sometimes, even with good care, they fail, and the 
loss and annoyance is then always great, and even in very careful 
planting seldom over ninety per cent live, while often twenty -five per 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 107 

cent die. The reason is often careless planting, when the season is 
favorable, but in unfavorable seasons the failure must be attributed to 
other causes. Those cuttings which grow, generally grow well and 
often make as good vines as those raised from previously rooted ones. 
The replanting of the cuttings that failed to live is both expensive 
and troublesome. Every vineyardist knows how difficult it is to suc- 
ceed in making cuttings, or even vines, grow on places in the vine- 
yard where other ones have failed to grow before. Some attribute this 
difficulty to some poison in the soil, but I believe the cause will be 
found in the greater difficulty to attend to a few young vines in among 
the older ones. The older vines will naturally use up the moisture in 
the soil, and the cuttings, with their young and tender roots, will have 
but little chance in the general struggle for life. But even if we sup- 
pose that the replanted vines will do equally well, it will be found that 
the replanting of the cuttings is actually more expensive than the first 
planting. The reason why this is so lies in the greater work in get- 
ting the soil in first-class condition after the first planting failed. In 
the first planting, the soil has been put in order with the help of 
horses and plows, while, when we replant, the very spots where the 
vines are to be located cannot be reached by other means than by a 
pick or shovel, as, no matter how well the old vineyard is plowed, 
there will always be a hard spot around every vine, or around the 
place where the vine should be, and where it failed to grow. If only 
a few cuttings have taken root, it is better to plow up the whole 
vineyard and reset, and in so doing endeavor to do better work. I 
know of vineyards where the owners have not succeeded in replanting 
during ten years, every year spending money and labor with little suc- 
cess. There will always be a few cuttings that fail to live. 

The causes of the uncertainty of cuttings are our inability to foresee 
the outcome of the season's climatic conditions. More or less rain 
has a direct influence on our success. Thus in very rainy seasons the 
cuttings should be small or rather short, so as to be as much as possi- 
ble in the upper, dryer and warmer soil. In dry seasons, again, the 
cuttings should be long, so as to be in the moist ground, but as we 
can never foresee what the season will be, we had better have a 
recourse to rooted vines, which, if in good condition, will be compara- 
tively independent of weather and wind. 

The Making of Cuttings. — The making of cuttings is not a difficult 
process, but nevertheless it should be carefully done in order to insure 
final success. After the vines have been trimmed and the trimmings 
have been placed in small piles along the rows of the vineyard, the 
cuttings should be made as quickly as possible on the spot, the laborers 
moving from pile to pile as they finish up. The shears should be sharp 
and kept sharp, both to insure good cuttings and to hasten the work. 
A poor shear is worse than a poor farmhand, and it pays to keep the 
best kind of every tool that is used in vineyard work. The size of the 
cutting must be decided upon according to the conditions of the soil. 
If the land is very wet and is likely to remain so, an eight-inch, or even 
a six-inch, cutting, will do, and will grow better than a long one. 
Long cuttings will reach down into the wet soil and decay at the lower 



108 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

end before they take root. In dry and warm soils the cuttings maybe 
from twelve to eighteen inches long, or even longer if it is desirable to 
bend them in a circular way in the holes in which they are to be 
planted, or if the soil is very warm and dry, when it is of importance 
that the cutting should reach the deeper moisture. A twelve or four- 
teen inch cutting is probably an average size cutting, and one that will 
answer most conditions, in case they are not previously known. 

A nurseryman, or any one who can give his cuttings as much atten- 
tion as they require, can use even the very tips of the vines and make 
them grow. But for general planting, especially direct in the field, 
seldom more than one or two cuttings can be made from a branch. 
The cutting should be cut immediately below an eye or joint. Such 
cuttings grow better, are easier to plant and are less apt to dry out. 
The more eyes a cutting contains the better is the cutting, as the roots 
mostly form at the joints. Many make the cuttings with a heel of old 
wood, but I do not believe such cuttings are in any way preferable to 
those made of only one season's wood. The old wood does not grow 
any better than young wood, generally not so well, and, besides, such 
cuttings with heels are more difficult to plant and handle. When 
the cuttings are made, they should at first be placed in small piles, with 
the top ends all the same way, and as soon as possible afterwards tied 
up in bundles, with at least two strings to every bundle. For tying, 
any string will do, but split basket-willow twigs are probably the 
strongest and least apt to root. Still any stout twine will answer the 
purpose. From one hundred to two hundred cuttings may conven- 
iently be put in each bundle, according to the size of the cuttings. 

The Caj-e of Cuttings. — After the cuttings are made and bundled, they 
should be labeled with wooden labels and immediately taken to some 
place where they can be heeled in. The lead-pencil is the best for 
writing the names. The best place in which to heel in the cuttings is 
on the north side of some large building, under an open shed or 
under some large trees. In fact, any place which is partially shaded 
and cool will do. If the bundles are to be used soon or shipped, 
they might be placed on the wet ground, and only covered with sacks 
or with straw, but, if they are to remain any longer time, they must be 
placed in the ground and carefully covered. A trench should be dug 
half the depth of the cutting, but slightly wider. The bundles are 
placed in the trench upright, and after the trench is full the soil from 
the new trench, parallel with the first one, is thrown on and around 
the bundles so as to keep them moist. It is best not to keep the cuttings 
too moist, and on no account should they be wet, as they will then begin 
to root rapidly, and when they are again removed these roots will break 
or dry up to the great injury of the cutting. If unavoidably the plant- 
ing is delayed longer than expected, the bundles of cuttings may be 
taken out and placed in dry air for a day or for a few hours, and then 
replaced in the soil. This may be done several times without any injury 
accruing to the cuttings, the only effect of the drying being to retard 
their rooting and sprouting, but it should of course not be done after 
they have once begun to callus or root. To place cuttings in water for 
any length of time is nearly always injurious, and especially so if the 



the; raisin industry. 109 

water is bad or contains manure. Manure water always kills cuttings 
readily. If the cuttings have sprouted, or begun to make roots, or form 
callus, a careful vineyardist will take his bundles to the field submerged 
in a barrel or bucket of water, or at least wrapped in wet sacks or blank- 
ets. If again the cuttings are dry and a fresh cut does not show a flow 
of sap, they may be freshened by soaking in fresh water over night. 
Even very poor and dry cuttings are easily revived this way, but a 
continuous immersion for several days will injure the cuttings and 
cause them to rot. It is also of importance that the water should be 
clear and cold, or at .least not warm. Instead of immersing the 
cuttings in water, they may be set down in cool and moist soil for three 
or four days before being planted. The soaking in water is the sim- 
plest, quickest and most effective for slightly dried cuttings. 

Planting Cuttings. — Planting cuttings in the vineyard can be done 
in several different ways. They may be planted with a spade, with a 
flat planting bar, or with the " sheep 's-foot." Each one of these tools 
will answer the purpose if properly used, but their selection must 
depend upon the quality of the soil, and upon the nature of the land 
generally. In all planting of cuttings, the following points must be 
observed as of importance in insuring success. The cuttings must 
be set in moist and cool soil. The lower end of the cuttings must 
lodge in solid ground, and there must be no air space at the bottom. 
Only one eye should be left above the surface of the soil. The soil 
must be tamped well around the cutting from the bottom to the top. 
All inferior cuttings should be thrown away, and every cutting should 
be examined before it is planted. 

For a description of the tools used in planting, I beg to refer to the 
end of this chapter. I will now further consider the above points. 
Many failures are made by not planting in moist soil. If irrigation 
is needed, irrigate before planting, then plow and harrow, and then 
plant. When moist cuttings are planted in dry and warm soil, the 
latter will extract all the moisture from the cuttings, and the latter 
will fail to grow. I have seen parties first plow deep furrows through 
the vineyard, so as to air and dry the ground before planting the cut- 
tings. This is not necessary and even harmful. Moist and warm 
ground is essential to the starting and growth of cuttings. The 
lower end of the cutting should be lodged in solid ground, or the 
cutting will fail to grow. This point is of the utmost importance, 
and should be carefully observed. If, when the cutting is pushed down 
in the soil, a small air chamber form at the lower end, the butt 
end of the cutting will mold, and the latter will be poisoned and die. 
Nine-tenths of all the failures in planting are caused by neglect in 
this respect. Care is especially needed when the sheep's-foot is used. 
Only one eye should be left above ground, which is enough for all 
purposes. Any more eyes will exhaust the cutting before it is rooted, 
and the additional length of the cutting will expose it to the danger 
of being broken or otherwise injured. The soil must be tamped hard 
all along the cutting so as to cause the latter to attract the necessary 
moisture. I^oosely set cuttings very often fail, especially in dry 
seasons. All inferior cuttings, especially those frosted or otherwise 



110 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

injured, should be thrown out before being brought to the field. A 
cutting costs so little that it pays to use only the strongest and best, 
when a much better stand will be the result. Frosted cuttings can be 
detected by their darker color. Fresh and healthy cuttings should 
have a green and fresh cambium or inner bark, and a fresh cut should 
show fresh sap oozing out. 

"When the sheep's-foot is used in planting, the butt end of the cut- 
ting is inserted in the forked end of this tool, and this explains why it 
is necessary to have as little wood as possible below the last eye of 
the cutting. By pushing the sheep's-foot down in the soil, the cutting 
is pushed simultaneously down to the proper length; a twist is then 
given the sheep's-foot so as to get it loose from the cutting, and the 
former is then pulled up. It may in some instances be necessary to 
push down the cutting with the left hand, while the sheep's-foot is 
being pulled back, as care must be taken that in pulling back the 
sheep's-foot the cutting is not lifted. Even the smallest lift will cause 
the lower end of the cutting to hang in an air chamber, and this will, 
as I have stated, cause the cutting to mold and die. When planted, 
a few sharp taps with the foot will suflSciently fix the cutting. When 
the flat bar is used, a hole is first made by the bar, the cutting is then 
inserted, and the hole filled up by again inserting the bar near the 
cutting, and by pressing it forward towards the latter. Neither of these 
tools can be used in dry or stony soils, but in moist and loamy soil, 
which has been previously well prepared, they are most excellent, as 
doing the work both quickly and well. The sheep's-foot is unexcelled 
for speed in loose soil, while the flat bar is of advantage where the 
soil is a little harder. The flat spade is used when rocky and stony 
or even gravelly soil interferes with the using of the former tools. 
Every farmer will know how to use the spade, and no further explan- 
ation is required here. 

Some plant the cuttings slantingly in the soil, in order to bring 
them as near the surface as possible. This is well enough and proper 
in very wet soils, where the lower strata are too cool, but in this warm 
country the perpendicular planting is easier and better. By twisting 
and bending the cutting in the dug hole a longer cutting can be used, 
but I have seldom found any advantage of very long cuttings, and 
few soils are suited to raisin grapes when such methods are needed to 
produce strong and rapidly growing vines. 

Care of Youn^ Cuttings. — In places where irrigation is needed and 
used, many irrigate the cuttings immediately after they are planted, so 
as to settle the soil. This, however, is only needed where the ground 
is very dry or very sandy. It is much the better way to irrigate before 
planting and to plant on the loose soil after it has been replowed and 
properly prepared. Such soil keeps the moisture for a long time, and 
even in dry climates will require no irrigation for months after the 
planting. The principal care, after the cuttings have been planted, 
but before they are fairly started, is to keep the ground loose and to 
prevent it from baking on the surface. The best way to accomplish 
this is to run a revolving randel harrow over the land regardless of 
the cuttings. This kind of harrow consists of a row of vertical, 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY, 111 

slightly concave steel discs, which revolve when the harrow is pulled 
over the land. No regard need be paid to the rows of cuttings, pro- 
vided they do not stand too high above the surface, or have begun to 
swell. Not one cutting in a hundred is injured, and those that are cut 
off are sure to sprout from below. After every shower of rain, the 
land should be harrowed or pulverized in this way. If the soil is 
baked and hard around the cuttings, the latter will be slow to start, 
but a loosening of the soil will have the desired effect almost immedi- 
ately. The amount of irrigation needed for young plantations can 
only be decided upon on the ground. The cuttings should be kept 
growing, and young leaves should always be seen at the tips of the 
branches. Ivong before these young leaves cease growing, a copious 
supply of water should be added to keep the soil from becoming 
too dry. 

Transporting Ctdtings to Distant Parts. — When cuttings are to be 
shipped any distance, they must be packed. The simplest method of 
packing for short distances is to fill the bottom of a sack with wet 
straw, and then slip the bundle of cuttings down in the sack, and a 
single string will then suffice to secure the sack to the bundle. Packed 
this way, cuttings can stand a voyage of a week or more if the weather 
is not too hot. If a longer voyage, of say several weeks' duration, is 
necessary, the cuttings should be packed in dry-goods boxes, and, if 
the time of transit is not too long, no other packing is needed. If, 
however, a very long transit is in view, more precautions for the safe 
arrival of the cuttings are required. After the bundles have been 
pressed down in the box, moist and fresh moss is packed tightly down 
all along the sides of the box. Such packing will keep the cuttings 
fresh for over a month. For a longer time, coarse, pulverized char- 
coal filled in between the cuttings is a splendid packing. The charcoal 
must be dry, the moisture in the cuttings being enough to keep them 
alive for several months. Packed first in tin boxes surrounded by 
charcoal, and then the boxes soldered tightly, so as to allow no air to 
enter, is the safest method for transporting cuttings long distances. If 
there is a possibility to repack at certain stations on the road, wooden 
boxes may be used instead of tin. The waxing of the ends of the 
cuttings will help to keep them moist. All lumber boxes should be 
lined with waxed paper, and all cracks carefully nailed up, as by the 
drying of the boards the contents are very liable to run out. I^arge 
and heavy boxes should be surrounded by iron bands. 

Rooting Ciutings. — There are two ways of planting cuttings in the 
nursery in order to have them rooted for next season's planting. One 
way is to plant in nursery rows four feet apart; the other is to set in 
beds. For such nurser>', a plat of land with rich soil and with good 
water facilities should be selected. Water should never fail in the 
nursery, as cuttings always require more water than old plants set 
farther apart. The rows should be staked out four feet from each 
other. Six or eight inch cuttings should be used, according to the 
depth to moisture; the more moisture, the shorter need be the cuttings. 
With a big, flat hoe the soil along the line of the row is thrown up on 
one side, the cuttings are set down upright close to the perpendicular 



112 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

side, and the soil is again raked back with the same kind of hoe, and 
then tamped hard around the cuttings. The latter need not be over 
two or three inches apart, and from forty to fifty thousand may be set 
on one acre of ground. In no instance should the cutting be left more 
than one or two inches above the surface of the ground. The best 
instrument or tool for opening the soil and for covering the cuttings is 
the large flat-faced Italian hoe, used by Italian workmen both in 
Europe and in this country. 

If the bed system is adopted, much smaller cuttings may be used, 
although it is not necessary to have them smaller than six inches. 
The beds may be two feet wide and four feet apart, in this respect 
resembling nursery rows, and treated just as such. The cuttings arc set 
in the beds two or three inches apart each way. We must remember that 
such cuttings require much more water than cuttings planted in four- 
foot rows, as the quantity soon exhausts the moisture in the soil. 
The beds may also be square, each one surrounded by a little bank or 
levee of soil in order to hold the water. In these beds, which should be 
slightly below the general surface of the ground, the cuttings are set very 
close, — two or three inches apart, — until the whole bed is filled up. 
These beds are never cultivated in any other way than by pulling the 
weeds out by hand. They must be frequently irrigated by flooding, 
except when the soil is immensely wet or moist. 

Vines may also be propagated from a single eye, or from cuttings 
containing a single eye. Such cuttings may be set perpendicularly in 
beds or in rows, or they may be placed horizontally in boxes with pure 
sand, and entirely covered over. The single eyes soon sprout and 
make nice little plants, with a well-developed system of roots. 

All these cuttings planted in beds, if properly watered during the 
summer, will make excellent vines to be set in 'vineyard form next 
season. Being set so close, they require much moisture and irrigation, 
the many new roots soon exhausting the moisture in the soil. It is 
better, however, to have the cuttings set as closely as possible, so as not 
to get too strong vines. An overgrown vine is more expensive to 
plant and more difficult to handle than one of medium growth. Be- 
sides, the latter has a greater number of fibrous roots, which, if in 
good condition, will give a quick start and rapid growth to the new 
vine. 

Care of Rooted Vines. — The same precautions are to be observed with 
rooted vines as with cuttings, only more care is required to shield the 
roots from the sun and wind. Wet blankets or sacks should always 
be used when the roots are taken to the field, and, if the vines show 
the least sign of being dry, they should be soaked for several hours in 
pure water, and in this respect treated just like cuttings. 

Planting- Rooted Vines. — Planting rooted vines is not attended with 
many difficulties. The most important points to observe are these. 
The vines must be freshly dug. If not, or if the least dry, soak in 
water over night. Cut away all dead or dry rootlets. Prune the top 
of the vine down to two or three buds, and leave only one spur. Have 
the vines covered while carried out in the field, and plant only in moist 
ground. The young and tender roots are easily dried if set in warm 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 113 

and dry soil, and they will afterwards decay and injure the vine. A 
carefully planted vineyard, where rooted vines alone have been used, 
and where every precaution has been taken to insure success, should 
have about ninety-seven per cent of the vines growing. To make 
every one grow would only be possible in a very small plantation. In 
the large raisin centers, all this planting may be contracted for. The 
cost of planting cuttings is generally calculated at one-half cent per 
cutting, and for rooted vines at one cent per vine. Frequently 
parties contract to supply cuttings and to plant the land for from 
eighteen to twenty dollars per acre or less. It is generally better to 
pay the higher price and get the work done properly. 

Proper Time for Planting. — The time for planting cuttings depends 
greatly upon the season, the quality of the soil and the moisture. In 
wet .seasons the dry land should be planted first, and cuttings might be 
started there as soon as the first frost allows us to make them with advan- 
tage. The moister the soil the later should the planting be begun, 
and on the contrary the drier the soil and the warmer, the sooner 
should the cuttings as well as the rooted vines be planted in the fall. 
December and January are the best months to plant, although with 
care cuttings as well as rooted vines may be set as late as in April or 
even in May. As a rule, early planting is better, as it gives the cut- 
tings chance to root well before the hot weather causes the shoots to 
start. In very rainy seasons, or in wet places, cuttings should be 
planted later than rooted vines. Moisture in undue degree will cause 
cuttings to rot, while its influence on the roots of the vines is not as 
great. Rooted vines stand both moisture and drought better than 
cuttings do. On sandy, dry soil and in dry seasons I would wish my 
cuttings planted as early in December as possible; while, on wet places, 
I would delay planting until after the frost is over in February. The 
same rule applies to rooted vines, but we must remember that roots 
begin to send out rootlets almost as soon as they are dug, and that 
early planting will preserve these for the early use of the vine, while, 
in late planting, almost every one of these new roots will be destroyed 
in planting and must be produced over again. We might also say 
that both cuttings and rooted vines should be set as soon as the soil 
is in proper condition in the fall. Do not wait for anything after the 
soil is dry enough to permit planting. Early planted vines will have 
a good start. 

Cost of Cuttings and Rooted Vines. — The price of Muscat or raisin- 
grape cuttings generally varies from two dollars and fifty cents to five 
dollars per thousand, and have been sold as low as one dollar per 
thousand cuttings. Rooted vines again vary from ten to twenty dol- 
lars per thousand, according to the demand and supply. The cost of 
planting is, of cour.se, difierent in different localities. In Fresno the 
ruling prices for vineyard planting with cuttings is one-half cent per 
cutting. The men board and lodge themselves for this sum. For 
rooted vines the price is from sixty cents to one dollar per hundred 
vines. The ground must be in a perfect condition, but the success of 
the work is never guaranteed, as so much depends upon after treat- 
ment. While the actual cost of planting the grapes is insignificant. 



114 THE RAISJN INDUSTRY. 

it will be found that the many different expenses of a large vineyard 
of say 1 60 acres will be quite considerable, and few of our larger raisin 
vineyards in irrigated districts have cost less than fifty dollars per acre 
during the first year. This includes labor, buildings, tools, etc., but 
not the first cost of land. With experience and constant supervision, 
this cost may be reduced somewhat, and under very favorable circum- 
stances from twenty to forty dollars even per acre may cover the cost 
of planting and maintenance during the first season. But estimates in 
this direction are not reliable, as one man will spend twice as much as 
another under similar circumstances, 

PI.OWING AND CUIyTlVATlON. 

Winter Plowing. — The plowing and cultivation of a vineyard com- 
prise different operations, both in the spring, winter and summer. 
Winter plowing should begin as soon as the vines are pruned, and 
should be finished before the buds begin to swell in the spring. The 
plowing should begin with a large plow and two horses, and the soil 



vineyard Double Plow. 

should be thrown from the vines towards the center of the land be- 
tween them. As such a large plow cannot go too near the vines with- 
out breaking branches and injuring the buds, a smaller single-horse 
plow is used to follow after the double team, and to finish up by 
plowing a furrow nearest to the vines. The depth of this plowing 
should, if possible, be from six to eight inches in the center of the 
row, and from four to six inches nearest to the vines. 

Plowing Devices. — To enable the single plow to run as closely to the 
vines as possible without injury to the vines, several devices are used. 
The block device consists of inserting a block of wood two inches wide 
between the center of the clevis and the plow-beam. This throws the 
singletree out to one side and enables the horse to walk at a distance 
from the vine, while the plow follows as close to the latter as possible. 
In combination with this block, the singletrees should be so constructed 
as not to catch the branches of the vines. This is best accomplished 
by attaching to the outside end of the singletree a flat, doubled leather 
strap, to which is fixed a common, large snap, in which latter the 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 



115 



traces of the Ifamess are fixed. Such, a singletree will glide by the 
branches without giving them a chance to catch anywhere. Similar 
singletrees, or even doubletrees, should be used wherever vineyard 
work is to be done, and they have the double advantage of being 
cheap, practical and easily made by any farmhand handy with tools. 

Cultivation. — The cultivation should always follow the plowing 
immediately, so as to prevent the soil from baking, and so as to tear 
up the roots of the weeds which have been partially dislodged. The 
first cultivation, which should always be in the same direction as the 
plowing, should be followed by cross-cultivation. The latter brings 
the soil back towards the vines, filling up the hollow formed by the 
throwing of the soil from the vines. 




Raisin Vineyard Diamond-tooth Cultivator. 



Back- fur rowing. — Later on, when the weeds have to some extent 
decayed, a double-shovel plow is by some growers used for turning a 
part of the soil back towards the vines. One round of this plow on 
each side of the vines is all that is required, as the repeated cultivation 
that should be carried on in a vineyard will generally sufl&ce to bring 
the balance of the soil back from the center of the land towards the 
vines. 

Cross-plowing. — Cross-plowing is not absolutely needed, and in many 
places not even possible, as where the vines are planted closer one way 
than the other. But wherever plowing can be done both ways, the 
land will be benefited by being plowed one way one year and the other 
way the next year, so that in course of time all the soil will be regu- 
larl}'- broken up. When there is plenty of time and enough labor, 
cross-plowing the same season will greatly benefit the vines. 



116 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

Weed-mtters. — ^These are used to great advantage after the first 
plowing, and any cultivator may be rigged with one of them, or they 
may be made as separate tools. The cutter-bar is simply a flat bar, 
which is bent in the shape of a very wide U, and is fastened to the 
beams of the cultivator just behind the last shovels or blades. The 
horizontal part of this cutfer-knife should be on the same level as the 
center of the cultivator blades, and stand as horizontal as possible, in 
order to be subjected to the least amount of friction. The effect of 
such cultivator cutters are that no growing weeds are left behind 
wherever they pass. 

Cutter-sled. — I have used with great advantage a combination of this 
cutter-knife and a sled, upon which the driver could stand and ride, 
and its use saved time, besides doing the required work well. Such a 
cutter-sled is, however, only useful in already well plowed and culti- 
vated soil, and for summer work it is just the thing and can then not 
be surpassed by any other weed-cutting tool which I have ever seen 
used. 




Raisin Vineyard Weed-cutter. 

Various other tools are used, and different ones at that in each sepa- 
rate district. Each grower has his particular way to cultivate and plow, 
and not two vineyardists do the work alike. Each one has his favor- 
ite tools and instruments, which he often changes from year to year 
or replaces by new inventions of local mechanics or inventors. A 
description of these tools and the various methods of plowing, culti- 
vating and bringing the land in proper condition would make a book of 
itself and would be merely a history of each individual vineyard in 
the land. An enumeration of them will be found later on. 

The cultivation of the vineyard should be continued as long as it 
can be done without causing injury to the new growth of the vines. 
The exact number of times the vines should be cultivated is impossi- 
ble to decide upon beforehand, as almost every vineyard requires a 
different method of working. It is safe to say that during the summer 
no weeds should be allowed to grow in the vineyard, and, as long as 
any of them are left, the soil should, if possible, be cultivated. 
Every weed acts like a chimney for the moisture in the soil, which it 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 117 

sucks out to the detriment of the vine, while weeds which grow in 
among the branches of the vines will also seriously interfere with the 
picking of the grapes. 

Hoeing. — Only little manual cultivation is needed. In the spring, 
after the first plowing and before the buds have started or have grown 
long enough to interfere with the work, the vines should be hoed. 
The object of hoeing is to loosen the soil nearest the vines, and to 
destroy all the weeds which cannot be turned under by the plow, and 
especially those which grow close to the vines. The best tool for this 
purpose is the common, heavy hoe with a long handle. A very useful 
hoe can be made of old shovels which are so worn and broken that 
they cannot be longer used for digging. The blade of the shovel is 
fixed to a new handle at a right angle, similar to a hoe handle, while 
the blade itself is left as it is. Such hoes are very useful in cutting 
heavy weeds, and work with great facility. Forked hoes are used by 
many vineyardmen, especially for stirring the hardened crust around 
the vine, but I believe the common, heavy hoe a more useful instru- 
ment, and if used in time will make the forked hoe unnecessary. 

Time fo7' Cultivation. — Too early plowing or cultivation before the 
weeds have started is not always desirable, as it prevents the weeds 
from growing. Such weeds, if turned under, will yearly enrich the 
land, and in course of time form a heavy and humus-rich top soil, 
which will serve to keep the moisture in the soil below. I therefore 
advocate plowing as late as possible. The exact time must be decided 
for every particular season and for every separate locality, and no 
general rule can be given. Wet lands should be plowed earlier than 
dry lands; it is the latter which especially require the green weeds to 
be turned under, and which will be the most benefited by the accumu- 
lation of humus. Our vineyardists disregard this fact too much, and 
are generally too apt to plow their dryest lands first. 

GRAFTING THE MUSCAT ON OTHER STOCKS. 

Time for Grafting Raisin-vines. — The best time for grafting grape- 
vines, as well as for grafting anything else, is when the stock on which 
we graft has its sap in circulation, and when the scions or cuttings 
which we are to insert in the stock are yet dormant. This time occurs 
from the middle of January, when the sap first rises in the old vine, 
and continues to March or even April, February and March being gen- 
erally the months best suited to the work. Grafting may also be done 
in the fall of the year after the grape crop has been gathered, while 
some growers have best succeeded still earlier, and advocate the month 
of August as being the most favorable time for this process. The sap 
at that time ceases flowing, and there is no danger of its being clogged. 
Grapevines can be grafted at almost any time of the year at which the 
weather is not too warm, as this will cause the cuttings to bud out 
before they have joined the stock. If grafting on resistant stocks is 
desired, the stocks, if small, must first be dug, and the grafting can 
then be performed in the workshop any time between December and 
March, the early winter months being preferable. 



118 the; raisin industry. 

Points to be Observed in Grafting. — The main object in grafting is to 
properly join the scions and the stock. The point of junction should 
be the cambium layer, or what is commonly called the inner bark. 
If a cutting of a vine is cut oflF smoothly and placed in the ground, 
the callus soon begins to form at the lower end. This callus, which 
is seen to exude from the green layer between the hard wood and 
the bark, is fed by the sap in the cutting descending through the 
cambium layer and forming new cells at its free end. If this callus 
joins a similar callus of the cambium or green layer of the stock, the 
two calluses unite and form together a new vine, in which the top 
consists of the new scion and the root of the old vine. The junction 
o£ the two is the place where the cambium surface of the scion met 
the cambium of the stock. In the scions, the cambium lies very close 
to the exterior layer of the cutting, the bark here being very thin, 
while in the old stock the cambium is situated many times deeper in, 
the outer layer or the bark being very thick. It is not necessary that 
the cambium layers of the two should meet or join all along the cut 
surface, and a few points of contact and junction is sufficient, although 
it is better to have as large a junction surface as possible If the two 
cambium layers do not meet, the scion will not grow, or, as it is 
called, take The scions must be dormant when being grafted, and, 
if their buds have begun to swell, they will probably not take, or at 
least success is less certain. In order to keep them dormant they 
should be cut early in winter, and then be buried in cool and only 
slightly moist earth, either in a cellar or on the north side of a house, 
where the sun and heat will not strike them and cause them to start 
their buds. If the callus should form, or even root, the callus and 
roots may be cut away without great injury to the cuttings. If the 
cuttings are dry, they should be soaked for a few hours in tepid water, 
and afterwards buried in moist sand. This treatment is often useful 
for imported cuttings which have been injured in transit. They 
often recover vigor wonderfully fast, and should never be given up 
for lost as long as there is any green-colored cambium left, in which 
the sap may again be brought into circulation. 

Various Methods of Graf tirig. — The general way to graft is to graft 
on old stocks. Vines of one variety are thus changed into the variety 
we wish to grow, and from which the scions are taken. The first step 
is to dig away the soil from the vines down to the first roots, which 
should be done by a separate gang of men. Next the stocks are 
sawed off horizontally at the first roots, or say from four to six inches 
below the surface of the soil. This should also be done by separate 
hands so as to insure rapidity and skill in the work. Some grafters 
saw off the stocks somewhat slanting, so as to cause them to shed the 
sap which always exudes from the stump. Next in order comes the 
splitting of the wood of the stock and the insertion of the grafts. 
This requires care and skill, and should not be done by careless hands. 
The splitting of the stock is done in several different ways, and to 
accomplish it we can either use a knife and a wooden mallet or a hand- 
saw. If the former is used, the knife must be sharp and thick, so as 
to stand the blows of the mallet. Some growers even use a sharp 




Simple Lateral Cleft Graft, la. Splitting the Trunk, rb. The Scion. ic. The Beveled End of the 

Latter, id. Scion and Stock Joiued. 
2. Simple Transversal Clelt Grait with Two Scions. 3. Cleft Grafting with a Cutting Graft. 
Champin Graft, or Graft on a Rooted Vine. 4a. Graft and Stock Betoj e being Joined. 46. The 

Same After being Joined. All after Aimfi Champin's "Vine Grafting." 



120 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

chisel. If a saw is the tool used, — and I prefer it every time, — the 
edges of the old wood should afterwards be pared off smoothly with a 
sharp knife, so as to leave no rough marks of the teeth of the saw. 
The stock is split straight across, as in the cleft graft, and one scion is 
then inserted at each end of the cleft on opposite sides of the stock; 
or the stock is split on one side only, care being taken that the cleft 
does not extend across the stump, and in this cleft a scion is carefully 
fitted as before; or a wedge-shaped piece may be sawed out or cut out 
of the stock, and of the size that can be fitted by a scion. It makes 
but little difference what method is used, as with ordinary care and 
skill the scions will take quite readily. Kven if they should entirely 
fail, the same stocks may be grafted over next fall or next year, as 
they keep their vitality almost unimpaired for years after they are cut. 
It is only necessary to saw them off until fresh wood is reached. 

The next work is to insert the scions. They should never be longer 
than sufficient to have one eye above the surface of the soil, two or 
three eyes to the scion being generally enough. The cuttings are first 
cut in sufficient lengths in the field, or on the spot, and there pared to 
fit the cleft in the stock. If prepared in the house, they are apt to dry 
out and become ruined. By keeping them in water they may be kept 
fresh, but this greatly injures their quality. The best way is to bring 
the cuttings out to the vineyard wrapped up in wet sacks, and to cut 
and pare them on the spot where they are to be grafted. With a sharp 
knife the two opposite sides of the scions are pared off tapering, but 
not necessarily to a fine point. The scion is then fitted in the cleft, a 
small wooden wedge being useful for holding the latter open while 
the scion is fitted. If the stock closes tightly upon the graft, no tying is 
required, but, if the grip of the stock is not sufficient, tying is needed. 
Cotton cloth, manilla rope or anything that will hold the two together 
will answer the purpose. The stocks and scions will both dr>' slightly, 
and the tying should therefore be secure and tight. 

A piece of bark of the vine is next placed over the cleft, so as to 
prevent any soil from falling in the cleft, and very careful grafters use 
a paste made of a mixture of two parts of adobe or clay and one part 
of cowdung, for covering both the cleft and the sides of the grafts 
outside of the tying. A stout stake is driven in the ground close to 
the graft, and the two tied together in order that the graft may not 
give or be disturbed in the least. The hole is next filled with soil, 
which should be packed tightly and heaped above the scion, thus 
forming a small mound above the ground all around the graft. The 
soil should not be disturbed until the new shoots are well above the 
ground and have begun to harden their wood, at which t me the 
security of the graft is fully assured. One or more of the grafts may 
be left growing for the first year, and later on all except one graft are 
cut off so as to give the vine only one trunk. 

In grafting on resistant stocks, the latter generally being smaller 
then old stocks, a different graft may be used, such as the whip graft. 
This graft should be above or at least near the top of the ground in 
order to prevent the scion from taking root, the latter' s roots not being 
resistant to the phylloxera. Such grafts should be carefully covered 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 121 

with the clay mixture, and soil should be heaped up over their tops. 
To prevent the scions from drying out, their tops may also be covered 
with grafting wax. 

Stocks and Their Influence. — The old stock has a decided influence 
on the scion and the new vine. Which stock is the best on which to 
graft the Muscat has not yet been determined, but we may presume 
that any strong and healthy growing variety will answer our purpose. 
During the first year, and also during the second year, in many 
instances the new vine assumes a character half way between that of an 
old-stock variety and that of the variety of the scions. Thus I have seen 
Muscats grafted on Sultanas and Zinfandels which were almost identi- 
cal with these varieties. If I had not positively known that they were 
the tops produced from Muscat scions, I would never have believed 
them to be anything else than suckers from the old stocks. The 
leaves, berries and branches of these Muscats were the first year exactly 
like Sultanas. The berries of those grafted on black grapes were, 
however, in this instance, not black but white, but I have heard of 
other instances in which they were partially colored. Some vines, 
again, showed characteristics of both varieties, the leaves generally 
being similar to the old stock, while the grapes showed the character- 
istics of the Muscats. This bastardity, however, wears off in a year or 
two, and finally the vine assumes the full characteristics of the scion 
variety. When this takes place it is evident that the sap of the scion 
or the top of the vine has either changed the root, or through its quan- 
tity overpowered the effects of the root-sap. 

Muscats grafted on Malagas, Feher Szagos, Sultanas and Zinfandels 
all do well in time, and in many instances bear even better than Mus- 
cats on their own roots. Our experience in grafting the Muscat is, 
however, limited, and we do not know with any certainty which roots 
are the most favorable or the most unfavorable on which to graft 
the Muscat grape. I have seen grafted Muscats on wine stocks 
which did not do well as regards bearing, while the growth 
of the vines was rather vigorous. These varieties mentioned above 
are, however, suitable stocks for Muscat grafts. I learn from Mr. 
R. C. Kells of Yuba City that the late Dr. S. R. Chandler of 
the same locality cleared the third year seventy-five dollars per 
acre from Muscats grafted on Mission vines. This must be consid- 
ered as very successful, especially as I have heard of other instances 
where similar grafts did not bear sufiiciently the third year to pay for 
the labor of caring for the vineyard work that year. 

VARIOUS SUMMER WORK. 

Sulphuring. — Sulphuring the vines is now considered a most neces- 
sary operation, and without doing it well and in time no good crops can 
be relied upon. It is true that good crops of grapes are sometimes had 
without sulphuring, but this is only due to chance; the absence of 
mildew, and immunity from disease of unsulphured vines are rare, 
even in otherwise most perfectly kept vineyards. 

The sulphuring consists in thoroughly dusting the growing vines, 
leaves, branches, flower buds and berries with powdered sulphur. 



122 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

The first sulphuring must be done when the grapevines leaf out in the 
spring, and, when the young shoots are about six inches long, it is 
about time to commence. Many growers sulphur only once, some go 
over their vines two times, but our most successful growers, — those 
who get the best and largest fruit crop of grapes and bunches, — 
sulphur in unfavorable seasons three or four times. The second 
sulphuring is done just before the blossoms open, and may even, 
provided the weather remains cool and windy, be done in the open 
blossoms with great benefit to the setting berries. Miss M. F. Austin 
of Fresno was the first to successfully sulphur in the open blossom, the 
result being very large crops. But not all have been as successful as 
she, and one of our most experienced vineyardists and raisin -growers, 
T. C. White, prefers to sulphur just before the blossom opens, as, in 
case of very warm weather when the sulphur is thrown on the blos- 
som, the latter is apt to blast. We are therefore on the safe side if 
we sulphur just before the buds have opened, and after the grapes have 
set. But on cold, windy days when one of the cold electric northwest 
winds are sweeping down the valleys, sulphuring must be done whether 
the blossom is open or not, as it is just at this time the sulphur is 
required the most, in order to counteract the formation of the first stage 
of the powdery mildew. The vapor of the sulphur destroys the germs 
of the mildew, and thus prevents the latter from causing the grapes to 
fall off. After the grapes have fully set, no further sulphuring is 
required except in the case of heavy rains or in continued cloudy 
weather, when there is always danger that the mildew will reappear. 
If heavy rains should occur during the summer, a renewed sulphuring 
is always necessary or at least advisable, but in ordinary seasons no 
sulphuring is needed after the berries have set well, as the germs of 
the mildew are then sufficiently injured to not develop later in the 
season. 

Sufficient sulphuring is always noticeable in the vineyard by its 
smell, and, when this smell is strong and pronounced, no further 
sulphuring is required. The sulphur is applied to the vines either 
by the ' ' dredger ' ' (or dust-can) or by a pair of sulphur bellows. The 
dredger is used when the vines are small, while the bellows are neces- 
sary to spread the sulphur evenly when the vines have reached a cer- 
tain size. Many growers use, during the first sulphuring, small 
burlap bags filled with sulphur. The meshes of the burlaps are 
large enough to allow the sulphur to go through. The sulphur should 
be finely pulverized to be effective, and the sublimated French sulphur 
is by many considered the best. The cost of sulphuring varies accord- 
ing to the size of the vines, but is generally about three dollars per 
acre. Young vines under three years of age require little sulphuring, 
while older vines require a great deal. About ten tons of sulphur will 
be enough for 1 60 acres. 

Tying Over. — The tying over of the branches is another vineyard 
operation much used in the interior raisin districts, generally in the 
end of June or the middle of July. It consists in so bending and tying 
the long, straggling branches of the vine that they will shade the 
grapes hanging in the center. The long branch is bent, not in a direct 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 123 

line towards the center, as it would then expose too many of the lower 
grape bunches, but in a spiral direction round the vine. If there is 
any fear that the grapes will be exposed and sunburned, and the vines 
have not been properly summer pruned, the tying over is the only 
process by which great loss can be prevented and the grape crop saved. 
In tying over, no twine is used. The end of the long branch is twisted 
and fastened to other branches, and, when the grapes are ripe and the 
picking season comes, a single light pull will suffice to untie all and 
allow the grapes to be picked. Great care should be used in tying 
over, lest the lower branches become exposed and sunburned. Careless 
or inexperienced laborers will often accomplish a great deal of work 
and a great deal of harm in an incredibly short time. I have seen 
vineyards where more harm was done by tying over than by the sun 
and wind combined. 

Covering the Vines. — Instead of tying over, many vineyardists now 
cover the vines, and place the covers on the open center of the vine, 
in order that they may protect the grapes from exposure to the sun. 
This is done in June, several days before the hot spell is expected. 
The last week in June is the best time almost everywhere in Califor- 
nia, as the vines are then open in the center, and any unusually hot 
weather would easily cause the grapes to sunburn. The process of 
covering is very simple. With a pair of shears the longest branches 
are clipped off and immediately placed on the open center. This is 
generally enough to prevent the exposed grapes in the center of the 
vine from being scalded. More than half a dozen branches will seldom 
be required, and at picking time these dry branches must first be thrown 
off, so as to give the picker access to the grapes. The covering of the 
vines is a better process than tying over, requiring less work and being 
more quickly performed. It is especially useful lor old vines, as the 
grapes of young vines are principally exposed from the sides. 

Thinnhig the Crop. — The proper thinning of the crop should be 
done by pruning. If the proper amount of wood is left, no thinning 
out of the grapes is needed. If a few show-grapes or extra large 
raisins are needed for exhibiting purposes, they can be produced by a 
judicious cutting of the majority of the grapes from any single bunch. 
If the free half of the bunch is cut off, the part that is left will pro- 
duce very large grapes. This operation is, however, never likely to 
enter as a regular vineyard operation in our vineyards, as with us labor 
is too scarce. The object of our raisin industry is to produce cheap 
medium-sized raisins of good quality, to be used by the masses of the 
people, instead of a smaller quantity of very large grapes, which 
could only be used by the rich. 

Rijiging the Vines. — This consists in removing a part of the bark 
all around a cane. In France and Greece a special instrument is made 
to perform this operation quickly and carefully. A ring of bark half 
an inch wide is all that is required to have the desired ej0fect. The 
vines are ringed when the grapes are half grown, and only a few canes 
are ringed on each vine. The effect of ringing is to greatly increase 
the crop of grapes, also to produce the grapes earlier in the season. 
So far this process has not been used in California to any extent. In 



124 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

the Grecian Islands, where currants are raised, this ringing has been 
practiced for years, with more or less beneficial effect. The sap in the 
cane that is ringed is prevented from again returning to the root, and 
goes to produce a larger quantity of grapes above the ring. But 
thereby the cane is seriously injured, and often to such an extent that 
it must be entirely removed the following season. Care must there- 
fore be taken to leave enough unringed branches to serve as fruit-bear- 
ing wood the following year. If done with care and good judgment, 
the ringing does no great injury to the vine. For a fuller account of 
the process, see article on Currants. 

The Vineyard Labors of the Year. — The following synopsis of the 
various labors in a raisin vineyard can only be of interest to the 
beginner, or to any one who contemplates engaging in the raisin busi- 
ness. The data given are only approximate, as they must differ in 
different localities, or according to the changing of the seasons : 

December. — After the first frost, or when the vines are dormant, 
planting new vines and cuttings may begin. Pruning the old wood* 
Burning the prunings. Manuring the soil. 

January. — Plowing, cultivating and planting. 

February. — Cultivating and plowing. 

March. — Grafting the grapes and finishing plowing. 

April. — Hoeing the vines and cultivating. Sulphuring and suck- 
ering. 

May. — Sulphuring and summer pruning. 

June. — Hoeing. Covering or tying over the vines. 

July. — Irrigating where needed. Fixing trays and sweatboxes. 

August. — Distributing trays and sweatboxes in the vineyard. Pick- 
ing the first crop. Packing should begin as soon as possible. 

September. — Picking, drying, turning the trays, reversing, taking up. 

October. — Picking the last of the second crop. Packing continues. 

Noveniber. — Hauling in, stacking and cleaning off traj^s and sweat- 
boxes. Irrigating and manuring the land. New land should be pre- 
pared for planting, which should begin as soon as the first frost has 
killed the leayes of the vine. 

PRUNING. 

Winter Pruning, or Pruning Hard Wood. — The pruning of vines 
comprises two different processes. The first one has for its object the 
shaping of the vines, the second one similarly the shortening of the 
branches properly so as to enable them to bear better fruit. These 
two points must always be kept in view, much more so of course 
during the first few years, before the vines have reached their bearing 
age. But even in after years the pruning must be so conducted, that 
the shape of the vine is not changed so as to interfere with the 
work in the field, or with the perfect development of the grapes. As 
regards the shape of the vine, it has been decided that in our raisin 
districts the Muscat requires to be pruned low, in order to properly 
protect the grapes from sun and wind. The head should be as low 
as possible, or even rest on the ground, and in no instance be more 
than a few inches above the same. Many of the bunches will then 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 125 

rest on the ground or hang a few inches above it, and experience shows 
us that such low bunches are the best and those which produce the 
finest raisins. Tall Muscat vines never produce as sweet and as large 
bunches or grapes as those headed low, and their grapes are apt to 
sunburn or be otherwise checked in their growth. During the first 
year, the young vine should be cut back to a single stem, it being 
enough to leave two or three eyes above the ground. The second 
season these canes should all be cut away except three, which are to 
form the future head of the vine. Bach one of these may be cut to 
two eyes, thus leaving six eyes on the vine. In the majority of 
vines, the head should by this time have been formed, as the following 
year will be the first year in which the vines will bear. 

When Muscat vines have grown two seasons, they should be pruned 
for fruit. The third season will always give some fruit, while, in 
many localities where the vines have been well cared for, the yield 
may be quite large and pay handsomely. No direction as to pruning, 
which will apply to every locality or to every vine, is possible. In 
different localities the climatic and other conditions are so variable 
that the methods of pruning may be modified. Where the vines grow 
strong and vigorous, more wood should be left. In cool and sheltered 
places the vines should be given a greater spread to allow more sun 
and air to enter. In warm localities, with a broiling sun, the prin- 
cipal object in pruning should be to properly shelter the grapes. There 
is danger, or at least there are great disadvantages in pruning either 
too long or too short, and in leaving too many or too few spurs. 
In pruning too long, or leaving too many eyes, the shape of the vine 
is changed or even seriously injured. In leaving too many spurs, the 
vines may bear too many and too small grapes. To find the medium 
between these extremes is always the great object and study to which 
the grower should devote his attention. In rich and moist soils which 
produce strong vines, more eyes should be left, and in sandy, poor 
soil a few eyes may suffice to cause the vine to bear much more that 
it can properly mature and perfect. The year before the vines bear 
their first good crop, the spurs left should not exceed three or four, 
and each spur should not have more than two eyes, including the 
eye nearest the old wood, which eye is often overlooked and not 
counted in. The next year a few more spurs may be left, but at no 
time should each spur be allowed to carry more than two eyes. If 
more eyes are left, the lower eyes will not develop, and the only thing 
attained by such pruning is to increase the size of the head, and to 
place the leaves and the grapes farther away from the center of the 
vine. 

At the age of six years, or when the vine is in full bearing, no more 
spurs should be added, as the vine has then attained a mature age, 
and the yield will increase independently of an increased number of 
spurs. How many spurs should be left it is not possible to say. The 
experience with most growers is generally that too few spurs are 
left, and that from ten to fifteen spurs are not too many on large 
and healthy vines. The tendency of the growers is now to leave 
more spurs than formerly, and to always restrict the spurs to two 



126 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 



eyes each. This experience has been acquired simultaneously in 
Fresno, San Bernardino and San Diego counties. Many growers 
affirm the fact that the difficulty is to get spurs enough, and my own 
experience is that, after the vine has once attained its age of full 
bearing, all the strongest branches are required to furnish spurs, and 
that only the weak and sickl}' shoots should be cut away entirely. 
The strong flow of sap in the spring requires many outlets, so as not 
to unnecessarily push the cell walls and cause disorders, and in case 
the soil is not strong enough to sustain and perfect so many grapes, 
it is better to manure it heavily and make it rich enough for all pur- 
poses. I believe an average of from eight to ten spurs are required by 
strong and bearing vines. Only strong canes should be left at any 
time. Weak and immature canes should be cut off close to the trunk 
or to the head. 




Muscatel Vine Eight Years Old, after Winter Pruning. 

This method of pruning differs materially from that this season 
adopted by A. B. Butler. He leaves now only from five to eight spurs 
on the vines, generally the lesser number. He maintains that his ob- 
ject is to produce large and superior grapes, and not to have his vines 
overbear. The outcome of such close pruning has not yet been 
demonstrated, but it may be possible that this is the proper way. Mr. 
Butler has certainly one point in his favor, and that is that it has not 
yet been demonstrated that very close pruning causes the disease known 
as black-knot, as quite frequently the unpruned vines show this 
disease much more than those which are pruned close. Another point 
in favor of this pruning is that it has been practiced in Malaga for 
years without any ill effects. But, before such very close pruning can 
be generally recommended, our experience in this direction should be 
more extensive, and several years more will be necessarj^ to come to 
any satisfactory conclusion in this respect. We know, however, that 
too many (say from twenty to twenty-five) spurs will exhaust the low- 
headed Muscatel vines, and in order to bring such vines back to proper 
bearing it has been found necessary to reduce the number of spurs at 
once to one-third and then gradually increase their number as the vines 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 127 

grow stronger. Every grower should study his own vines and adapt 
the number of spurs to the quality of the crop. If the crop is inferior, 
reduce the number; if again the crop is superior, we may try to grad- 
ually give a few more spurs in order to reach the greatest yield of first- 
class grapes. In pruning the spurs, the cut should be made a little 
above the eye or bud, and not so close to it that it will be injured and 
dry out. 

Suckers from the roots should be removed to a limited extent, 
that is, now and then a sucker may be left in order to give material 
for forming a new head, if this should be found necessary. But as a 
rule the many suckers which rise from the roots should be removed in 
early spring with a sharp-pointed stick, and even those which rise from 
below the regular head should be broken off while young, or be pruned 
off in winter time. 

Another system of pruning called the Chaintre system has been 
introduced, or at least spoken of during the last few years. As, how- 
ever, it is not generally used, or even to my knowledge used at all, 
for raisin grapes, I need only here allude to it. It consists of 
pruning the vine to one single long stem, which is carried along the 
ground and, at a distance of six or eight feet from the root, fastened to 
a stake. This branch is pruned to shorter branches and spurs, each of 
the latter to one or two eyes each to furnish wood and fruit. The 
advantages of the Chaintre pruning are claimed to be principally two, — 
a greater yield of grapes and a larger outlet for the abundant sap in the 
spring. It is supposed that, if the vine is pruned too short, the sudden 
flow of sap in the spring has a great tendency to poison some of the 
cells and vessels of the wood, and cause the disease known as black- 
knot. The Chaintre system endeavors, by furnishing the vine with 
more cells and vessels, and thus a larger outlet for the sap, to overcome 
this difficulty. The Chaintre system has, however, some great incon- 
veniences. It interferes considerably with the tillage of the soil. It 
increases the cost of the vineyard through the extra stakes necessary to 
support the vines, — inconveniences so great that I doubt whether the 
system will ever be seriously adopted anywhere on this coast, even if 
it should prove of any advantage. 

The time for the pruning depends upon the season. The only safe 
rule is that vineyards may be pruned as soon as the vines are dormant. 
If pruned too soon, a new growth will start, which will be killed by 
the first frost. In many seasons the pruning may be done in Novem- 
ber and December; in large vineyards it must be begun early, so as to 
finish before the plowing commences. Early pruning will cause the 
vines to start early in the spring, while late pruning will considerably 
delay the starting of the buds. When the spring frosts are to be 
feared, the pruning may be deferred for some months, or until the end 
of January, as it delays the budding out of the vine in the spring, 
sometimes as much as fourteen days. But, on the other hand, the first 
warm spring weather is so favorable to the development of the grape- 
vines and the setting of the fruit, that every advantage should be taken 
of the same. The very best crops are generally had on early pruned 
vines. 



128 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

Bleeding of the Vines. — The bleeding of the vines after pruning in the 
spring is by many considered injurious. So far as I know, no direct 
experiments to prove this have been made in this country, but 
European experiments with wine grapevines point to no ill effects 
from the bleeding of the vines. The bleeding retards the budding out, 
and this fact has led some growers to the practice of pruning twice. In 
the first pruning an extra eye is left on every spur, and these ej^es are 
again clipped off shortly before the eyes begin to swell in the spring. 
The bleeding of the vines thus causes the eyes to be retarded until the 
frost is over. I believe such practice is both unnecessary and too 
costly, and is not required in any of our raisin districts, and where 
such practice must be employed the raisin grape cannot be perfectly 
at home. Of late years spring frosts have become very rare in our 
principal raisin districts, and the practice of double pruning is no longer 
thought of. 

Summer Pruning, or Pruning Green Wood. — Summer pruning is a 
much disputed vineyard operation, which, however, at least in some 
localities, is of great importance. This summer, or rather spring, 
pruning consists of cutting back the young growing shoots from one- 
third to one-half just after the berries have set well. The proper time 
of the year is in May, but the exact time must necessarily be different 
in different localities and seasons. In Fresno the cutting back should 
not be done later than May, and never except when the vines show a 
vigorous growth. The principal object the summer pruner has in 
view is to force the secondary branches of the vine as much towards 
the center of the vine as possible, so as to form there a perfect canopy 
of shade to serve as a protection to the young and tender berries. If 
let alone, the branches of the vine will throw out these secondaiy 
shoots near the top of the branches, thus leaving the head of the vine 
unprotected from the sun. The shortening in of the branches neces- 
sarily throws the new shoots to the center of the vine. A not less 
important object to be sought by the summer pruning is the strength- 
ening of the young branch. In May, when the vines are covered by 
the young and vigorous shoots, they are yet exceedingly brittle, and 
only a slight pushing is required to break the branch off just at its 
junction with the old wood. A heavy wind at this time sometimes 
does an immense damage, and the vineyard will look as though every 
vine had been dragged over. Half of the branches may be broken and 
hang partially attached to one side of the vine. A single wind may 
ruin two-thirds of the crop. This can only be prevented by the sum- 
mer pruning of the vines. By a heavy shortening in of the branches, 
the latter expose so much less surface for the wind to act on, that no 
branches are broken, and we have failed to see the heaviest wind 
cause any noticeable damage in vineyards which had their vines 
properly shortened in. The summer pruning in no way injures the 
vines. The sap is checked in its flow only for a few days, and within 
a week the new side shoots make their appearance. But the vineyardist 
must be careful not to summer prune after the hot summer weather has 
set in, as the hot weather will burn or scald the young grapes and ruin 
them entirely. For the San Joaquin valley raisin districts, I cannot 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 129 

advise summer pruning after the first days of June; in Southern Cali- 
fornia, somewhat later. Grapevines on sandy, dry and poor soil should 
not be summer pruned, or only very lightly so. They have not strength 
to start a new growth and will remain stunted all through the season. 

Many growers of Riverside, El Cajon and Fresno consider sum- 
mer pruning beneficial, if not necessary, and practice it every year 
regularly. It is necessary to summer prune heavily or not at all. Cut 
back one-half of the growth, or cut back leaving one or two leaves 
above the bunch of grapes on every cane. If the young canes are only 
topped, the secondary branches will come out near the ends of the 
canes and bear them down, in time exposing the bunches to the 
sun as well as causing the second crop to grow too far from the main 
trunk, the summer pruning thus acting the opposite of which it was 
intended. In Greece the wine grapevines are summer pruned, but 
the currants are never so treated. 

Root-pruning. — The pruning of the roots of grapevines, in order 
to cause them to bear, is entirely unnecessary, and is never done by 
experienced growers. Some growers have practiced the cutting of the 
surface roots of the vines so as to cause the tap roots or the main roots 
to go farther down, and they claim that by this method greater crops 
are harvested. I am satisfied this is only a theory not supported by 
facts. Surface roots are as necessary to plants as deep-soil roots, and 
serve the plants in their way, bringing atmospheric air to the circu- 
lation in the roots. If too many surface roots are formed, it is a sure 
indication of too much water in the top soil, as too frequent irrigation 
with a small stream of water will cause such roots to form. The 
proper remedy is to irrigate less frequently, but more at a time. The 
above does not refer to the pruning of the roots of grafted vines. 
In cases where Muscats have been grafted on resistant stocks, it is of 
importance that the graft should not make roots of its own, as these 
would soon overpower the stock and in their turn succumb to the 
enemies which it was the intention to avoid. When rooted vines are 
planted in the vineyard, their roots should be well pruned, and all dead 
and decaying, as well as dried-up, parts should be removed. If they 
are allowed to remain on the vines, they will draw moisture from the 
sound parts at a time when all the moisture is needed for the formation 
of new roots. 

Siickering. — The object of this process is to relieve the raisin-vine of 
superfluous wood before the latter has had time to draw on the strength 
of the vine and deprive it of the elements necessary to support the 
fruit-bearing branches. The proper time for suckering is early in the 
spring, when the young wood is yet tender and easily broken. With 
a hard and flat piece of wood, the lower suckers are dug out from 
below the ground, while the upper suckers may be broken by hand. 
A sucker must be understood to be any branch which does not produce 
fruit at a time when the vine is old enough to bear. In strong and 
moist soil and on strong vines even the lowest shoots produce grapes, 
and can therefore hardly be called suckers. But as a rule even they 
should be removed, unless we have a special object in view, such as 
renewing the trunk of the vine, lowering its head, or in otherwise 
encouraging the lower branches. 



130 the; raisin industry. 

While few vineyardists take sufficient care and time to sucker their 
vines, there can be no doubt that the operation is of the greatest impor- 
tance, in order that as large and good a crop as possible may be secured. 
It is not only best to remove all the non-fruit-bearing branches which 
spring out from the root and the trunk, but also a little later on, after 
the shoots have reached a foot or more, to cut any branch from the head 
of the vine which does not produce fruit. In many instances, how- 
ever, it is necessary to renew the head of the vine, and for that pur- 
pose lower suckers may be allowed to grow. For a year or two these are 
pruned regularly and made to bear, and the old sickly head is then 
removed- 

VARIOUS VINEYARD TOOI^. 

General Notes. — It is not my intention to here describe the various 
tools used in the vineyard so minutely that they can be made after the 
description, but simply to enumerate and call attention to them in order 
that as little repetition as necessary may be made. Every local black- 
smith or mechanic invents, improves or patents vineyard tools of every 
description, and almost every year sees new tools introduced and 
older ones discarded. Still a few of these tools have become standard, 
and modifications of them are not always improvements. 

The Sheep' s-foot. — This is a very useful tool in planting grape cut- 
tings. It consists of a round rod of three-eighths-inch iron and about 
three and one-half feet long, furnished with a cross handle at the upper 
end. The lower end is very slightly flattened out and split to a depth 
of one and one-half inches, the cleft thus formed being a little wider 
at the point of the bar, while the interior angle of the cleft should be 
roimded in order that the cutting may not be cut. The sheep' s-foot is 
used in very soft ground only, where it can be pushed down readily. 
In planting, the lower joint of the cutting is grasped by the cleft in 
the rod, and both are pushed down together to the required depth. A 
twist is then given the handle, so as to get the rod loose from the cut- 
ting. The rod is then pulled up, and a tamp with the foot sets the 
ground solid round the cutting. Care should be taken that the cutting 
is not pulled up with the rod, as it will prove fatal to the cutting. 

The Planting Bar. — This bar is used also in loose ground free from 
rocks. It consists of a flat bar of iron two and one-half inches wide, 
from three-eighths to one-half inch thick and three and one-half feet 
long, and is furnished at the upper end with a handle. In using this 
bar, it is first pushed in the ground, and a hole is made for the cutting. 
The cutting is then pushed down into the hole, the bar inserted along- 
side of it and pressed forward, in order to fill the hole and set the soil 
solid around the cutting. 

The Dibble. — This tool is simply a hard piece of oakwood, with a 
curved handle and pointed. It is a most useful instrument when the 
vines are being pruned. By means of it the soil is scraped ofi" from 
around the trunk of the vine, to enable the pruner to cut off the 
suckers as close to the trunk as possible. Every pruner should be 
furnished with a dibble. 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 131 

Planting Chains. — These are best made of twisted wire, sucli as is 
used for clothes lines. L,ines made of cotton or hemp are apt to stretch 
when dry, and shrink when wet. Copper wires are inserted to mark 
the distances at which the vines should be planted. 

Spades. — Spades are often used for planting. Long-handled spades 
are more useful than those with short handles. 

Hoes. — Besides the common, heavy hoes, very useful hoes can be 
made of old shovels which are too worn to be of account as such. 
New handles are set on the shovel blades at a right or sharp angle, 
thus transforming them into veritable hoes. With these tools much 
more work can be accomplished than with the common, manufactured 
hoe, which never cuts well. The large, flat- faced Italian hoe imported 
to this country from Italj'- is a most admirable instrument when 
planting cuttings in nursery rows. In fact it is then indispensable. 

Plows. — Of plows, heavy double plows for two horses are used for 
plowing in the center between the rows, and smaller plows for plowing 
closer to the vines. As these can be had everywhere, and as every 
grower has his own preferences, no description of them is required. 

Cultivators. — These are indispensable in the vineyard, and various 
models are in use. The common, diamond-shovel cultivator for both 
one and two horses is indispensable in every vineyard. The larger 
one of these may be greatly improved by affixing to the posterior 
shovels a cutter-bar, which should stand horizontal and on a level with 
the center of the posterior shovels. 

Randel Disc Cultivators. — These are useful in ground that has 
baked before the lately planted cuttings have begun to bud. They 
seldom cut or injure any of the cuttings, and the whole field may be 
gone over regardless of rows or cuttings. 

The Ash Trough. — ^The ash trough consists of a long trough on 
wheels, all made of galvanized iron, and furnished with numerous 
perforated holes. It is drawn by two or more horses through the vine- 
yard, and the cuttings are burned in it as it goes along, and the ashes 
are scattered over the soil. As yet this trough is only used in a few 
of the largest vineyards, but when perfected will be useful every- 
where, as b}'- its aid the ashes may be saved for the vines instead of 
being wasted as is now so often the case. 

Sulplmring Cans or Bellows. — These are of various shapes and pat- 
terns. The cans have been superseded by the simple little burlap bag, 
which does the same or better work. The bellows are similar to com- 
mon bellows, but are furnished with a distributing nozzle and with an 
air opening through which the sulphur can be poured. 

The Ctitter-sled. — This is simply a sled four feet long by two and a 
half feet wide or more, under which has been fixed a horizontal bar of 
iron in the shape of a shallow U. It is used in the vineyard after the 
plowing and cultivation is finished, and when it is of importance to 
kill the few remaining weeds. The driver stands on the sled, which is 
pulled by one or two horses. It cuts all the weeds below the soil, and 
is a most effective and useful tool. 

Vineyard Trucks. — These useful trucks are California inventions, 
and of the greatest importance to the grower. They are now made of 



132 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

various sizes, but should never be over four feet wide, while three feet 
is even better, and their length should not exceed six feet. They are 
made to turn readily anywhere by having the front wheels or wheel 
movable, independently of the balance of the truck. By the aid of 
these trucks the grower can use horse labor in distributing his boxes 
and travs in the vineyard, even where the vines are planted so close 
that ordinary wagons cannot pass. The vineyard truck is now used 
in all Fresno vineyards, and is considered almost indispensable. The 
first truck ever made for this purpose was designed and invented by 
J. T. Goodman of Fresno. 

Shears. — These should be of the very best make of soft steel, and 
furnished with double springs. So far no good pruning shears are 
manufactured in this country, the best make coming from Switzerland, 
and retailed here at $3.00 per pair. It paj's any grower to buy the 
best shears, as inferior ones not only last but a short time, but also do 
poor and slow work, and in the long run cost more than the best and 
most expensive make. With a good pair a pruner can in a day cut 
fifty per cent more than with a poor pair, and from ten to twenty-five 
per cent more than with an ordinary pair. It therefore can be readily 
seen how the extra price can be saved in the first day or two. Such 
fine shears should be handled and cared for very much like a razor. 
They should never be ground on a revolving stone, but only honed 
with oil on a fine hone. When the season is over they should be oiled, 
looked over and laid away. Large shears with wooden handles are 
not needed for Muscat vines. The best size shear is the medium size, 
which can be used with one hand. 



DRYING AND CURING. 

CAI.IFORNIA SUN-DRIED RAISINS. 

Note. — In describing the processes of drying, curing, packing, assort- 
ing, etc. , I have followed only methods which should be used by every 
conscientious raisin grower and packer. These methods are now 
actually in use, not by every packer and grower, but by the best of 
them, by those who strive to produce a very superior article, which 
will compare favorably with and compete successfully with the best 
products of Malaga or other foreign raisin districts. Too much poor 
curing and packing is done in every raisin district, to the great detri- 
ment of the district, its growers and its packers. The cause of so 
much poor work is undoubtedly due to the method of selling the 
raisins in bulk for a previously fixed sum, whether the crop is good, 
bad or indifferent. For many years no inducements were held out to 
the grower to produce a very superior article, and as a consequence 
the packer got very little first-class raisins to pack. When raisins are 
paid for according to their quality alone, there will be plenty of first- 
class raisins, and both packers and growers will be the gainers. The 
former will get more first-class fruit to pack, the latter will find it to 
their advantage to produce it. During the last season (1889 to 1890), 
a change was inaugurated, and a grading of prices according to the 
quality of the raisins has been insisted on. When this system is 
fully carried out, and when the grower knows at the beginning of the 
season that he can get a higher price for his superior raisins, Cali- 
fornia will produce as high-grade raisins as Malaga or any other raisin 
district. Already now our average raisins are better than the average 
Malagas, and all that our growers ask for are inducements to produce 
the best. With a view to promote the attainment of these expecta- 
tions, the following has been written. Raisins may be produced by 
cheaper methods than those which I advocate, but only great care, 
judgment and study will accomplish the best results. In the raisin 
industry it pays to produce the best, and to attain this very little extra 
care is required. 

Time of Ripening. — Varying with different localities and seasons, 
the Muscat grape ripens in California between the loth of August and 
the 30th of September. The earliest points where raisin grapes are 
now grown are probably Palm Valley in San Bernardino county and 
the plains of Kern county. In both these localities Muscats have 
been known to be ripe as early as July, but neither locality has yet 
produced any great quantity of raisins, and can hardly be considered 
as a raisin center. The earliness of the San Joaquin valley generally 
is probably caused by its small elevation above the sea, which is about 
three hundred feet for Fresno, and increasing as we go farther south. 
San Bernardino county again, somewhat later as to ripening, is, as far 



134 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

as its raisin centers are concerned, more elevated, or from one thousand 
to two thousand feet or more. The nearness to the sea has there also 
some influence to retard the maturing of the grapes, and it is certain 
that in Southern California the later ripening of the raisin grapes is 
principally due to this cause. Thus the picking in Riverside com- 
mences between the loth and the 30th of September, and while the 
other raisin districts in the southern part of California may vary some, 
still the ripening season coincides very nearly with that of Riverside. 
In Highlands the grapes are said to ripen two weeks later than at 
Riverside. In El Cajou the grapes ripen between the ist and loth of 
September. In Fresno the Muscatel raisin grapes ripen in the end 
of August, and generally by the 20th of August the picking has 
begun everywhere on the drier soils, while on the wet soils it is gen- 
erally retarded from one to two weeks. As a rule the dryness of the 
soil influences considerably the ripening of the grapes, and even the 
quality of the soil is not without some influence, as on sandy, warm 
soil grapes ripen much earlier than on heavy land. As an illustra- 
tion of such early ripening, we may mention that, on certain gravelly 
soils northwest or north of Santa Ana, the Muscat grapes ripen two 
weeks earlier than on the heavier and finer soils in the immediate 
vicinity. The growers take advantage of this early ripening to sell 
their Muscat grapes fresh instead of drying them. 

In Salt river and Gila valleys in Arizona the grapes are said to ripen 
much earlier than in California, but so far the vineyards there are not 
old enough to have been greatly benefited by this early ripening. On 
the plains of Kern county the ripening is hastened by the nature of 
the soil, and possibly also by the nearness to the desert and the desert 
wind, by the greater distance from the sea, and by a less amount of 
rainfall. In Malaga the grapes ripen several weeks earlier than in 
Fresno; in fact, the whole Mediterranean region seems to be earlier 
than California. As a general rule, we may state that the Muscat 
grapes ripen later in Southern California than in the central portion 
of the State. In regard to Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys, the 
farther we go towards the south the earlier do the grapes ripen. 
But in every district there are localities which are earlier than others. 
The Muscat and Muscatel ripen earlier than the Sultana, which latter 
grape begins to ripen earlier than the Muscat, but attains perfection 
much later than any other of our raisin grapes. Thompson Seedless 
ripens in Yolo about August loth, and is thus our earliest raisin grape. 

Signs of Maturity. — There are three different ways by which the 
ripeness of a grape can be tested, — saccharometer, taste or color. The 
saccharometer is a well-known instrument, consisting of a graded glass 
tube that will sink to diSerent depths in liquors containing different 
percentages of sugar. There are different kinds of saccharometers, 
but the most practical one for the general raisin-grower is one 
divided in one hundred degrees, each degree showing one per cent of 
sugar to every hundred of water. Thus, if the saccharometer sinks 
down to twenty-five, we know that the water or must contains twenty- 
five per cent of saccharine water and seventy-five per cent of water. 
To properly test the grapes, a few bunches should be picked from 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 135 

several vines, the juice should be squeezed out and passed through 
a towel or otherwise strained. The must is then poured into the test 
tube, and the saccharometer inserted. If it shows twenty-five degrees 
or more of sugar, the grapes will make good raisins, but for very 
superior raisins several degrees more of saccharine are needed. It 
is not unusual to find the grapes reach thirty degrees in favored 
localities and in favorable seasons. Only inexperienced vineyardists 
will require the aid of the saccharometer to determine the state of 
ripening of the grapes; the more experienced judge bj- taste and color. 

The taste of course is the most commonly used method for ascertain- 
ing the ripeness of the raisin grapes. Every grower experienced or 
not should examine his grapes repeatedly. To give directions for 
tasting the ripeness of the grapes is of course impossible; it must be 
learned, and can only be learned by practice. It is enough to say 
here that the grapes should taste very sweet, contain no acid, and if 
possible be rather solid. 

The color is also a valuable adjunct in determining the ripeness of 
the raisin grapes. Fully ripe and perfect fruit should be amber yel- 
low, somewhat transparent and waxy. If this color is combined with 
great sweetness, and in Muscatels with absence of acidity, we can be 
sure that the grapes are ripe. Some grapes do, however, especially 
when too much exposed to the sun, acquire the yellow amber tint 
without being sweet, but they are readily distinguished from the ripe 
grapes by their being of smaller size and harder, tasteless and acid. 
Such grapes never develop into good, mature grapes, and do not make 
good raisins. I may also remark that not all ripe grapes become 
amber colored. Those that grow in the shade and on very damp 
ground remain always green, although they acquire a certain sweet- 
ness, and will make good raisins. The Muscat grapes will make 
salable raisins even if not fully ripe, but in order to make superior 
and good raisins all grapes should be "dead" ripe, especially so if 
the grapes are to be dipped in lye. If unripe or partially ripe grapes 
of Muscats and Sultanas are dipped, they make very poor and red 
raisins; it would have been better if they had never been dipped. 
This is especially the case with the Sultana, which begins to ripen 
and is eatable long before the Muscat, but which only makes a good 
dipped raisin after the Muscat has been ripe for some time. Three 
or four days make a great difference sometimes in the amount of 
sugar in the grapes, and consequently in the quality of the raisins, 
and the experienced grower will keep his grapes on the vines as long 
as possible to attain the greatest possible amount of sweetness. But 
on the other hand it takes judgment to foresee how sweet the grapes 
will be, as in unfavorable seasons they will not attain their full sweet- 
ness even if allowed to hang long on the vines. To know the time 
after which the grapes do not increase in sugar requires much expe- 
rience and acquaintance with the locality where they are grown. In 
this respect different years vary very much. 

Puking. — Many vineyardists pick their raisins too green or before 
they are fully ripe. Not all raisins ripen at the same time, and to 
make the best possible raisins out of the grapes, it is necessary to pick 



136 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

over the vineyard several times, each time picking only the ripest 
grapes. In places where there are two crops of grapes, at least two 
pickings are absolutely necessary, and in many places two pickings 
are enough. The green grapes of the first crop are then left to be 
picked with the second crop, at which time they will probably be 
perfectly ripe and very choice. But if the vineyard is small and man- 
ageable, and the owner wishes to realize the most that he possibly can, 
he should make at least three different pickings, each time taking 
care only to pick those grapes which are fully ripe and which would 
make a first-class quality of raisins. As long as the smaller vineyardists 
sell their raisins in bulk at a contracted price of so much a pound for 
any kind or quality of raisins, we cannot expect any great improve- 
ment in the too common mode of picking, wuere good, bad and iiid f- 
ferent grapes go on the trays together. But i am certain that in a few 
years this will or must change. Raisins in sweatboxes will bring the 
price they are actually worth, and it will be to the interest of every 
grower to pick his grapes at the time they will make the best possible 
raisins, even if extra labor is required for the work. The pickers 
generally use small, pointed knives for separating the bunches, and 
they are preferable to small shears, as better enabling the picker to 
reach farther in between bunches and branches, and to cut the former 
without injuring the branch. 

In picking the bunches, great care should be taken, much more than 
is at present in use. It is always best to begin picking in the poorest 
part of the vineyard, as it will take some time for the pickers to learn; 
they are almost certain to pick in the beginning too many green grapes. 
The poorest part of the vineyard is also apt to have the ripest grapes. 
The large, fine bunches should be handled with the utmost care, in 
order that the bloom of the grapes may not be injured. The bunches 
generally should be handled by the stems only, or, if this is imprac- 
ticable, by the stem as much as possible. In separating a large bunch 
from the vine, the bunch should be cut as close to the stem as possi- 
ble, and at the end of the stem of the bunch there should remain a 
portion of that broader part by which the bunch is attached to the 
main branch. There is nothing prettier on a bunch of raisins than 
this broad end of the bunch; it gives an idea of strength and oddity 
to the raisin cluster, showing the buyer at a glance that it is a cluster 
which was once solidly attached to the vine. Many raisin-packers 
place this broad end of the bunch so as to protrude above or between 
the berries, as if inviting the purchaser to take hold of it and thus 
lift the luscious bunch out of the box. With the poorer and smaller 
bunches, no such care in cutting need be exercised, and it would be 
to no benefit to so cut a small, poor bunch that it would cause the 
purchaser to belive it was a large bunch. Poorer bunches might there- 
fore be cut with short stems. As to the handling of the bunches, the 
intelligent grower will soon learn how to instruct his men. If vine 
branches interfere with the lifting of the bunch from the vine, some 
of them may be cut without any injury to the vine, but too many 
branches cut this way will cause a new growth to start, which often is 
derived from the best fruit buds for the ensuing season, and which 
always is apt to be injured from frost. 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 



137 



A picker should average not less than fifty trays a day of cleaned 
and assorted grapes. At this rate the picking of twenty pounds of 
grapes costs about two and a half cents. Some persons employing 
white labor claimed to have lowered the cost of picking to one and 
three-quarter cents per tray of twenty pounds, but I failed to learn how 
these grapes had been handled, cleaned and assorted. The picking 
of the grapes is facilitated by previous care given the vines. Neglected 
and entangled vines are much more difficult and expensive to pick 
than those which have been properly cared for and correctly pruned 
the season before. The same may be said as regards vines between 
the branches of which weeds have been allowed to grow. In picking 
from such vines, the grapes are always torn, the best bunches destroyed 
and many grapes wasted on the ground. 




Raisin Vineyard Truck. 

Cleaning. — When the bunch is picked or cut from the stem, it should 
be cleaned. If it is a first-class or even an ordinary layer bunch, every 
sunburnt berry, every leaf, twig or other conspicuous foreign substance, 
must be carefully removed with the picker's right hand, while the left 
hand holds the bunch by the stem. This cleaning must some time be 
done, and at no time can it be performed with better results than when 
the grapes are green. The stems are then soft and flexible, while later on 
they are brittle, and in endeavoring to remove foreign substances many 
berries will be detached, or sometimes even the whole bunch broken. 
This cleaning of the bunch does not need to extend to third-rate or 
small bunches, which are to be used for loose raisins. The latter 
can be cleaned very rapidly with machinery, and it would only be a 
waste of time to clean them by hand-picking. The use of a pair of 
bellows is also very practical. With them much of the spider webs 
and smaller refuse can be removed, which could not be gotten rid of 
in any other way. A few hands should therefore go over all finer 
bunches and blow them clean, especially if sand or dust have accumu- 
lated on the trays or bunches. If the grapes are carefully assorted 
when picked, and the different grades placed on separate trays as they 
should be, this cleaning is done rapidly, as the largest part of the 
crop, which only will make loose raisins, need not be cleaned. 

Drying on Trays. — As soon as the grapes begin to ripen, the trays 
should be distributed along the rows in the vineyard. They may 
either first be placed in piles at every row where the roads cross the 
vineyard, or at once distributed along the vines. The former method 



138 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

is to be preferred, as it protects the trays from dirt and dust, and in dis- 
tributing afterwards it gives the pickers a more varied labor, otten 
vrelcome as a change from tlie cramped position necessary in picking. 
Muscat vines in proper bearing require one or two trays to the vine, 
while for young vines one tray will sulfice. The probable quantity 
needed should be ascertained beforehand iu order that the trays may 
be properly distributed. The ripe grapes are always placed directly on 
the trays, and not previously picked in boxes. In placing the bunches 
on the trays, the proper way for each picker should be to have two 
trays, one for each grade. On one tray he places all the large 
bunches that promise to make first-class bunch raisins; on the other 
tray he places again all inferior bunches and loose berries. The 
smaller bunches and loose berries may be placed any way almost, as 
long as they are not heaped on top of each other. The largest bunches 
should be placed with the stem side down, as this side will, when 
cured, become the finest and will eventually by the careful packer be 
placed upwards in the box. That part of the raisin which in drying 
touches the tray will also present, when cured, a flat surface with 
several concentric layers, which are considered a prominent feature 
in the perfect raisin. 

The general method of drying is, however, to place good, bad and 
indifferent bunches together on the same tray, with no attempt at 
assorting. While this method may do when superior raisins are not 
required, and when no higher price is paid for better grades, it will be 
found a very inferior practice when the grower desires to pack himself, 
in order to reap all the benefit he can out of his crop. For all superior 
raisins, I therefore strongly recommend the assorting of the raisins on 
the trays as having the following advantages. It requires less handling 
of the large bunches. The large bunches dry the slowest, and by 
having them from the beginning separated from the small and the 
loose the latter can be brought away to the sweatboxes, when ready, 
without necessitating the reassorting and handling from the trays, 
which at this time, when the stems are very brittle, is always expen- 
sive as well as injurious to the fine bunches. The larger bunches, 
which are to produce layer raisins, require less drying, as they are to 
be sweated or equalized before being packed. The smaller and inferior 
bunches, on the contrary, must be stemmed and assorted by machinery 
before they are equalized, and immediately after they are taken from 
the trays. In order to "stem" readily these raisins must be rather 
overdried, as if soft they would tear from the stems instead of having 
the latter broken. We can therefore perceive the advantage of having 
the two grades on different trays. Without the necessity of assorting 
we can simply take up our "layer" trays when they are ready and 
allow our " loose " to remain as long out as necessary, without fear of 
having the layers overdried. By this assorting when green, each grade 
can l)e treated separately in a quick and effective way. 

A tray two by three feet may be made to comfortably hold from 
eighteen to twenty pounds of grapes. The first crop should be placed 
pretty close on the trays, not allowing any part of the tray to be 
visible, as the reflected heat will be too great and may injure the 
raisins. The second crop should be packed less close, as the reflected 



the; raisin industry. 139 

heat from the surface of the tray will help to dry the grapes. This 
of course only refers to localities where the temperature during the first 
drying is very high. The warmer it is the closer should the bunches 
be packed on the trays, and on the contrary when later on in the 
season, or when the drying weather is unfavorable, plenty of space 
should be given the grapes. It is often said that grapes, to make good 
raisins, should not only dry, but cure. There is much truth in this. 
Good raisins should dry and cure at the same time, by which is meant 
that a chemical process is taking place, which is something else than 
the mere evaporation of the water in the grape. The heat necessary 
and favorable for drying the grapes is different in different localities. 
At certain temperatures the raisins will get cooked and spoil, assume 
a red color, lose their sweetness, become sour and hard, and covered 
with large, sharply defined corrugations, — signs of a very inferior or 
even entirely worthless raisin. In Riverside the grapes are said to 
cook at from 98 to 100 degrees Fahrenheit in the shade. In Frenso 
the grapes dry and cure well up to a temperature of 105 degrees, and 
in Kl Cajon they do not spoil until 103 degrees are reached. I would 
think that from 90 to 103 degrees in the shade would be the best 
temperature for drying perfectly ripe and sweet Muscat grapes. When 
the grapes are very ripe, a much higher temperature will not injure 
them, while unripe and sour grapes, especially of the second crop, 
will bum or cook at a lower temperature than would be the proper 
one for ripe grapes. 

It is not always advisable to stop picking when the heat becomes 
too great. A better method is to stack the trays in the field, so as to 
protect the raisins from the sun. When the heat subsides, the trays 
are again spread. The expense and trouble of stacking the trays is 
not as great as may be supposed, and a few hours will generally 
suflSce to stack a large vineyard with the regular picking gang. 
Some packers have suggested that to secure good raisins the trays 
should be stacked for several weeks in the beginning of the period of 
drying. For the production of our usual dark-colored raisins this is 
not necessary nor even advisable, except when the heat is such that 
the raisins would cook and spoil. With a little experience this cook- 
ing of the grapes can be readily detected by the smell emitted by the 
grapes. As soon as they are in the least injured by the heat, a cooked 
flavor begins to pervade the whole vineyard. When this peculiar 
flavor is noticed, and when the berries begin to show small red and 
soft blotches on the side facing the afternoon sun, the stacking should 
be commenced as quickly as possible. If the trays are kept in piles 
for several days, the injured grapes will partially recover and at least 
to some extent regain their color. Greatly injured grapes will dry 
much slower, sometimes remaining several weeks behind those which 
were not injured by the sun. Slightly discolored raisins may partially 
regain their color by sweating, but they will not improve otherwise. 

After the trays are filled with grapes, the best way is to put several 
rows of trays together, or rather to place the trays from three rows of 
vines along one of the spaces between the rows. This gives more 
compactness to the crop, makes it easier to handle the trays, and 



140 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 



facilitates the stacking of the trays, their turning and reversing, or 
any labor with the trays that may be required. By thus clearing some 
of the spaces between the rows, admission for trucks and wagons is 
had close to the trays. 

Tur?img. — After the grapes have been exposed to the sun for some 
days, they must be turned. By this time it will be found that the 
grapes have dried principally on the upper side, while the lower side 
is yet comparatively green. The time when the turning of the grapes 
should be done depends entirely on the weather. One-half of the 
drying process should be over, and this requires a longer or shorter 
time. When the time for turning is at hand, it will be found that the 
under side of the grapes, or rather the side of each berry that was 
placed against the trays, has flattened out and shows concentric 
circles, which are considered of much beauty, and greatly valued in 
all good raisins. When they are well formed and established, it is 
generally time to turn. If the grapes are turned before these con- 
centric circles are hardened, the latter will open and become less dis- 
tinct. Another objection to turning too early is that the upper side 
of the grapes, if not properly dried before turning, will dry but very 
slowly afterwards, and often so slowly that the raisins may have to be 
turned a second time, which will prove both expensive and to the disad- 
vantage of the raisins. One turning is always enough, and the only 
one proper. There are several ways to turn. The Malaga grower, 
with his raisin floors, must turn his raisins by hand. The great advan- 
tage of our trays is that we can turn much quicker. The turning is 
done in our vineyards by placing one tray on the top of another and 
then turning them quickly over, when in changing the tray the bottom 
side of the bunches will be found to be up. 





Raisin Tray Catcher. 

This turning, however, requires some little knack, so as not to drop 

any raisins on the ground. The trays may be turned either the short 
or the long way. If the long way, one tray is first placed on the top 
of the other, and two men catch hold of the long opposite sides of 
the trays by placing their hands on the outside quarters of the edge 
and then pressing firmly. This keeps the raisins steady between the 
trays, and in turning rapidly, if the bunches are at all entire, few or 
no raisins will be dropped. In turning the short way, the men grasp 
with their opposite hands at the middle of the short sides, while with 
their other hands they catch the outside quarters of one of the long 



THB RAISIN INDUSTRY. 141 

sides. By turning quickly over the long side that is held by the 
hands of the turners, the operation may be performed without drop- 
ping any berries. In small vineyards, where the owner must perform 
the work alone, he may turn the trays without any help whatever, 
though, naturally, his work will be somewhat slower. He can 
operate by the aid of a small contrivance called the catcher, a most 
simple but very effective little tool. It resembles a miniature stool like 
those used by the milkers of cows. The seat or top may be twelve 
inches long by six wide, made from one-inch lumber. On one side 
are inserted four pegs, each about six inches long. The two oppo- 
site ones are inserted very close together, but spread strongly out- 
ward. After one tray has been placed on the top of the other, the 
catcher is pushed over the long edge of the trays, which of course 
will cause them to jam tightly together on that side. By now grasp- 
ing the trays on the opposite edge, they may be turned without the 
aid of any one else, and without any loss of raisins. Some use steel 
clips for the same purpose, but the common home-made wooden catch 
is undoubtedly the most practical method, as it is the cheapest. 

Turning should, as much as possible, be done in the morning or at 
least in the forenoon while the air is yet cool and the stems of the raisins 
damp. The pressure of the tray will not then cause the stems to break 
off and the quality of the raisins to be lowered. If the bunch raisins 
are on separate trays, which is best, they may be turned earlie jin the 
day than the second grade, which is not apt to be greatly damaged by 
the breaking of the stems, as they are to be stemmed anyhow. 

Reversing. — This is an operation not properly understood by every 
raisin-grower, but is still of the utmost importance, especially for the 
first-class bunches of the first crop, which naturally dry more slowly 
than the smaller bunches. But the method is also very useful for the 
second crop, when late in the season the drying is slow and uncertain. 
The reversing consists simply in reversing the trays on the ground in 
such a way that the edges which first faced the north afterwards face 
the south, or viee versa. The object of reversing is plain. It will 
nearly always be found that the raisins at the top or on the side of 
the tray nearest the north will dry much more slowly than those on 
the side facing the south, especially so as soon as the weather begins 
to turn colder. To prevent this and insure equal drying at the top 
and bottom, the reversing is performed after the trays have first been 
turned. This will enable the grower to get his raisins in several days 
sooner than he otherwise would. Indeed, at the critical period of 
drying, when fall rains may set in and injure the raisins, it is of the 
utmost importance to hurry the crop as much as possible; the reversing 
is at this time almost as important as turning. I have seen the second 
crop of many a vineyard seriously injured by rain, and its drying 
delayed only through neglect to reverse the trays. The effect of 
reversing is oftentimes very striking, and one grower who reverses his 
trays in time may get his crop in safely, while his neighbor who 
neglects reversing may lose a great part of his. A few days' delay 
at this time of the year is often fatal to the whole second crop, and 
no pains should be spared in order to hasten the drying by every pos- 
sible means available. 



142 THS RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

Slanting- the Trays. — ^The practice of raising one end of the tray 
higher than the other is of very questionable value. In the fore part 
of the drying season, the heat from the sun is such that the raisins 
receive all the heat they require without being raised at an angle 
against the sun. Towards the end of the season, I have found that, 
when the trays have been raised, those grapes which lie on the lower 
edge of the tray, and accordingly nearest to the ground, dry the 
quickest, while those at the upper edge dry considerably slower. The 
cause is that the air a foot above the ground is much cooler than close 
to the ground; the large space under the raised tray also serves as a 
cooling room to cool the tray. In some direct experiments made, it 
was found that, as regards the tail end of the first crop, the raised 
trays came in several days later than the trays which had remained 
flat on the ground. In advocating that the trays should not be tilted, 
I must not be understood to mean that it is not beneficial to keep the 
tray in a tilted position when there is a close background to sufiiciently 
heat the air equally at the upper and lower end of the trays. This 
can only be secured by either placing the trays against the side of a 
hill or on specially prepared drying floors, which are described further 
on. In this connection I may suggest that when the heat of the sun 
is not great, and when the raisins dry slowly, the placing of an empty 
tray behind the drying tray, in order to reflect the sun on the raisins, 
will considerably hasten their drying. This is a valuable aid in drying, 
especially when the second crop is late. 

Elevating the Trays. — The practice of elevating the trays containing 
the tail end of the second crop is a good one. The best way is to 
place the trays on the top of the vines, when it will be found that the 
free circulation of air underneath will help to dry the raisins and pre- 
vent rot and mold. This method is only adopted after fall rains, but 
is then of great help in drying the crop. 

Stacking Against Rain and Dew. — The stacking of the trays is also 
a valuable help in keeping out dew and cold. Late in the season, 
when it takes several hours of sunlight to dry the night dews, the 
stacked trays will be dry when the first rays of the sun are out. When 
heavy rains are expected, the grapes, whether partially dried or not, 
should always be stacked. It will keep the stems from rotting ofi" 
from the berries, and will generally save the crop from being seriously 
injured. Some growers have an idea that only the partially dried 
grapes should be stacked, but the green ones are equally benefited. 

There are several ways of stacking. The flat-stacking is used prin- 
cipally when the raisins are very dry, and when it is of importance 
that no air should enter the trays. In flat-stacking, one tray is simply 
placed on the top of the other, and the circulation of air thus brought 
to a minimum. In rainy weather, however, the roof-stacking is to be 
preferred. Instead of placing one tray on the top of another, the 
trays are placed in two piles joining each other in such a way that 
the inner end of every tray overlaps the edge of the tray in the adjoin- 
ing pile. This lifting up of one edge of the tray gives to the whole 
pile a roof-like appearance, and the angle in which the trays join 
together becomes steeper the higher the pile grows, until, at the height 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 143 

of three or four feet, the trays slant so much that the raisins cannot 
rest on them, but are in danger of sHding off, when, of course, the pile 
should not be made any higher. It takes several times longer to stack 
the trays in roof fashion than to simply pile them up flat. The 
advantage of roof-stacking is that it admits more air, and sheds the 
rain better. In damp weather the piles should not be covered on the 
sides for any length of time, as the raisins will then mold more rapidly. 
If, instead of joining two piles of trays, three piles are made to join, 
the center stack will be flat, while much air is admitted to the raisins. 
In this stacking the first two trays are placed flat on the ground at almost 
the distance of one tray. Another tray is made to rest on the inner 
edge of the lower trays and cover the intermediate space, and so on. 
This method gives twice as much air space between the trays as regu- 
lar flat-stacking, and is to be recommended when the weather is damp. 
A combination of this last method and roof-stacking is used by some, 
every grower almost having his favorite way to stack. It must be re- 
membered that in very rainy weather no kind of stacking will be of any 
value, while, when the showers are few and far between, stacking may 
save the crop. 

Stacking is especially valuable in conjunction with dryers, when 
protection during a few days only is all that is needed. One man can 
stack about five hundred trays an hour, and the regular picking gang 
can stack a whole vineyard in a few hours. Should the rain be very 
heavy and no dryer handy, it is of no ase to try to save the crop after 
the mold has begun to make its appearance, and when the berries have 
begun to rot. It is then far better to dump the whole crop in the field 
rather than to spend time, money and anxiety on raisins which must 
in any case become a total loss. 

Taking Up. — When, at last, the raisins are sufficiently dried, they 
must be taken up as quickly as possible. This process again consists 
of three difierent labors, — the stacking, assorting and boxing. It is of 
great importance to know exactly when the raisins have sufficiently 
dried to be ready for the sweatboxes. This can properly only be 
ascertained by experience, still a few directions will materially help 
the inexperienced grower in his judgment. A perfect raisin should be 
neither too hard nor too soft. A raisin is too soft when, after rolling 
it between the fingers, the least particle of juice exudes through the 
cracked skin or meat. Such raisins will "sugar" in course of time, 
and not keep a year. If the raisins, or a majority of them, on a bunch 
are too wet, they should be spread to the sun for some time longer. If, 
however, there are only a few underdried raisins in a bunch, the bunch 
may be taken in, and the soft raisins clipped off afterwards. A raisin 
is too dry when, in pressing and rolling it between two fingers, the pulp 
does not move readily inside the skin. Such overdried raisins will not 
again become first-class raisins ; their skin will always be tough, and 
their color will be somewhat inferior. If but slightly overdried, they 
may be brought out by equalizing. To know when the raisins are in 
a proper condition to take up is most important to every raisin-man, 
and he should never neglect to watch his trays early and late. Upon 
his good judgment and watchfulness depend the quality of his crop. 



144 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

To prevent too rapid drying out after the raisins are nearly read}'-, the 
practice now is to stack the trays in the field. 

This stacking simply consists in placing the trays which contain the 
ready raisins on top of each other, in piles five feet high. On the top 
of every such pile are placed several loose trays crosswise, so as to 
shelter the pile from the sun, and possibly even from rain, and other 
trays are raised up against the sides of the pile in order to exclude as 
much air as possible. If, however, the raisins are rather underdried, 
the side trays may be left out so as to allow the raisins to dry more. 
It is always best to stack the trays before the raisins are fully dried, as 
they will finish drying and curing in the stack much better than in the 
sun. The underdried raisins will thus dry just enough, while the 
overdried ones, or those just right, will not dry much more. 

After the stacking is done, the assorting is in order. This consists 
in taking out every bunch that is not sufiiciently dried to go into the 
sweatbox, and placing them on new trays to dry more. At this time, 
also, the bad or inferior and red berries may be taken out, if present in 
a very large quantity on good bunches ; but when there are only a few 
on, it is better not to touch the bunch, as, in handling it, it is 
only too apt to break. Any further picking out of bad berries had 
better be deferred to the packing-house. The boxing and assorting, 
which may be considered together, consist in transferring the dif- 
ferent grades of the now dried raisins to separate sweatboxes. This 
is done in two ways. The number one bunches, which have been 
placed on separate trays, may now simply be slid into the sweat- 
box, by a dexterous movement of the tray. Between every two 
layers of these first-class bunches should be placed a stout manilla 
paper cut so as to exactly fit the box. It is of importance to have 
the paper just fit the box, and not be too large nor too small, as in 
either case the raisins are apt to become mixed and the bunches 
broken. But, if the grapes have not been assorted from the beginning 
on separate trays, more work will be required to get them into the 
sweatboxes. Every bunch must be carefully taken up by hand from 
the tray, and then placed on the paper in the box. But in doing so 
many bunches are necessarily broken, as even careful hands cannot 
help frequent mishaps, while ignorant and careless workmen may do 
an immense injury to the crop. Too few manilla papers are generally 
used. Some packers require only two papers in every box, while six 
or eight, or at least five, papers should be the proper number for every 
box of very choice or even ordinary layers. We must remember that, 
the more papers we use, the less apt are the bunches to be injured, but 
even the best layer bunches will not suffer if piaced two layers high 
between every paper. On top and in the bottom of every box must be 
one paper, so as to keep out dust. The loose and inferior raisins, 
which either have been left on the tray after the layers are picked 
out, or which from the beginning have been placed on separate trays, 
may now, when perfectly dry, be simply dumped in sweatboxes 
without any paper. 

We have thus at least two kinds of sweatboxes. One kind contains 
those raisins which are destined to make layers, and which require 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 145 

sweating and equalizing before they can be packed. The other kind 
contains the loose and drier berries, which are to go immediately to 
the stemmer and grader, and which would not separate from the stems 
if they were made to equalize. 

Covering. — If the weather has been favorable, the raisins may have 
been dried and cured in twelve days. Of these twelve days, the first 
seven or eight were used for drying the upper side of the raisins. On 
the seventh or eighth day they were turned, and on the twelfth day 
they were ready to put in the sweatboxes. But this is fast drying, 
and drying under favorable circumstances, with a dry wind blowing 
gently all the time. But sometimes it takes a much longer time to dry, 
say from fourteen to twenty-one days. In Fresno, where the weather 
is less favorable, the drying of the first crop may require from two to 
three weeks. In El Cajon it always takes two or three weeks for the 
raisins to dry, and in Orange county the drying sometimes requires 
from thirty days to five weeks. In Malaga the drying is accomplished 
quicker than in California, because there they cover the raisin floors 
every night with canvas, and in the morning, when the canvas is un- 
rolled, the raisins are yet warm. The drying, then, has been contin- 
ued all night, and the raisins have not had time to cool when they 
meet the first rays of the sun. In California, again, our raisins are 
cold, possibly even wet with dew or rain, and it sometimes takes the 
sun until noon to dry up the moisture accumulated through the night. 

To counteract this absorption of moisture, many of the raisin-grow- 
ers i:i Orange county, California, especially around Santa Ana and 
McPherson, cover the trays with canvas every night. This method is 
to bo recommended wherever there is any difiSculty in curing either 
the first or the second crop. If this method is employed, I am satis- 
fied thr.t raisins could be grown and properly cured in localities where 
otherwise no raisin cult is possible. The method of covering the rai- 
sin trays at Santa Ana is as follows, varied by different growers, but 
in the main the same everywhere. The trays are placed together in 
long rows ; about twenty yards long is found to be most convenient. 
The v/idtli of the row is just the width of two trays, or five feet. Thus 
the row of trays laden with raisin grapes is about sixty feet long by 
five feet wide. Along the north end of this long row of trays are 
driven down small posts every six or ten feet, and left extending about 
two feet above the ground. Along the south side of the row of trays 
smaller posts are driven down at the same distances, but not allowed to 
extend so high above the surface of the soil. These pegs or small 
posts may best be slanting outward, or from the trays. Along the high 
posts is strung a wire in such a way that it cannot easily get loose. 
To a long canvas cover are now secured small rings for running on the 
wire, and on the other side larger rings to hook over the smaller posts 
in front. If the canvas is only one yard wide, two widths must be 
sewed together so as to make the canvas six feet wide. The trays, 
which are two and one-half feet by three feet, when placed side by 
side will just form a drying floor of five feet, large enough to be cov- 
ered by the canvas six feet wide. The cost of canvas is six and one- 
half cents a yard by the bale. 



146 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

The manner of using the canvas is very simple. The canvas cover, 
which is stationary, is attached to the wire and the higher posts. 
Every evening the cover is thrown over the trays, the front or lower 
edge is hooked by the aid of the rings over the pegs in the ground, 
and the trays thus securely sheltered. In the morning, when the sun 
is up, the cover is thrown back over the higher posts, and the trays 
fully exposed. The trouble to cover is not very great ; two men can 
cover forty tons of grapes in half an hour, and generally it is consid- 
ered that the picking-gang can cover the whole crop in half an hour's 
time every evening, and it takes them as long to uncover in the morn- 
ing. If well cared for and properly dried, and stored away in the 
autumn after the crop is all in, this canvas cover, with its posts, will 
last six or seven years, and if painted or oiled would probably last still 
longer. One yard of canvas can cover thirty pounds of grapes, and for 
the purpose of utilizing the full space, the trays are made two and one- 
half by three feet. 

Such is the process practiced in Orange county. If adopted else- 
where, it would enable many localities to produce good raisins, where 
the climatic conditions are such that no drying is now practicable. 
The process is not as good as the one employed in Malaga, but it has 
some advantages which make it very acceptable. It enables the 
grower to use trays, and it makes drying-floors unnecessary, and the 
spaces in the vineyard can be used without taking away room from 
the vines. On the other hand, the drying-floors of Malaga are warmer 
and more secure, and almost absolutely safe in case of rain. 

Drying-fioors. — While, in some parts of California, the first crop 
dries generally without any difi&culty, in other parts rain and dew very 
frequently interfere with the drying of even the first crop. In many 
places where raisin-curing is not successful, the same could be prac- 
ticed profitably if we would adopt the system of drying-floors used in 
Spain. Even in localities where the first-crop raisins dry well, the sec- 
ond crop is always exposed to more or less rain, and the raisin-grower 
annually loses large sums of money on account of not being able to 
hasten the drying of the second crop. But it is doubtful if the Malaga 
drying-floors will ever be found practical and come into general use 
with us. They take considerable space from the vineyard, and are 
very expensive, but they are very secure, and when once built are very 
profitable. A limited number of such floors would be very useful in 
every vineyard, especially for drying the second crop. At present no 
such floors exist in this State. The following description gives an 
idea of how they may be constructed: 

These drying-floors may be built of brick with the long sides as long 
as required, while the short sides should be about twelve feet long. 
The back wall is six feet high, while the front wall is only six inches 
high, which, with the above length of side wall, would give enough 
slope. In Malaga the interior is filled with black gravel and tamped 
hard, but for our purpose probably nothing would be superior to as- 
phaltum, bituminous rock or cement. It must first be ascertained if 
bituminous rock would not impart a flavor to the grapes, in which case 
cement would be the most useful flooring. In order to allow the rain 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 147 

to run oflf, the front wall should be pierced with small holes close to the 
ground, but this would only be necessary in case the bed is filled with 
gravel, or no cement floor exists on top of it. Along the back part of 
the floor should be set a row of uprights of two by four lumber, driven 
securely in the ground. On the top of each post is set an eyelet, 
through which runs a stout wire along the whole back of the frame. 
A canvas cover long enough to reach the whole length of the floor 
should be used for covering, and, in order to secure it to the wire and 
the posts, it should be hemmed and furnished with small rings to run 
on the wire. In front similar rings are set in order that the canvas 
may be secured to the smaller posts and kept down in case of wind. 
On such floors common trays may be used. To make the canvas im- 
pervious to rain, it may be painted with boiled linseed oil. The ab3ve 
are only suggestions based on the Spanish drying-floors. For a full 
description of them, I beg to refer to the article on Malaga. In using 
linseed oil, care should be taken that only pure oil is used. There is 
linseed oil which contains chemicals which rapidly rot the canvas. 

Dryers. — The subject of dryers is of great importance to the Califor- 
nia grower. The last few years have fully demonstrated that every 
raisin vineyard, no matter where it is situated, should have one or 
more dryers, in order that the last of the crop may be dried properly 
when the rain sets in. Many years these dryers are not required, but 
from time to time they prove of vast value, and if properly constructed 
are much superior to any drying-floor. But so far no perfect dryer 
has ever been constructed. Most dryers are too expensive, costing 
from three thousand to seven thousand dollars, when of a capacity to 
dry from twenty-five to fifty tons of green grapes at one charge. 
Nearly all late dryers are constructed with a fan, which sucks the air 
out through one end of the building. The large complicated dryers 
are all patented, but there can be no doubt that good small dryers 
might be constructed by every grower, which will do good service. 
As, however, so far no very perfect dryers have ever been constructed, 
and as every owner of one changes and rebuilds every year, we must 
leave the consideration of the construction of these dryers to some fu- 
ture time when more knowledge or experience will have been gained. 
Dryers large enough to hold a charge of one ton of green fruit have been 
constructed at the price of two hundred dollars by Ellwood Cooper of 
Santa Barbara. They dried their fruit in twenty-four hours, but they 
were never used for raisins. 

But as this style of dryer may be adapted to raisins, I will give a few 
hints at its construction. The heating apparatus consists of a large 
iron drum, or radiator, seventeen and one-half feet long by two and 
one-half feet wide, set on a furnace in which is burned wood. The 
furnace and radiator are built into a bank, on top of which the dryer is 
built. This dryer is simply a large wooden box about seventeen feet 
square and six feet high, and looks, as seen from the outside, like a 
chest full of drawers. These slide on frames, are deeper than they are 
broad, and contain movable bottoms or trays made of small redwood 
ribs. They begin about two feet from the top of the radiator ; if closer, 
the heat would be too strong for the fruit. The ventilation is had by 



148 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

small sliding doors at the bottom of the chest, through which the air 
rushes in, while it goes out through the drawers, which for this pur- 
pose are left open an inch or two. The chest is covered over with an 
open shed, which makes the labor pleasant, and enables the attendant 
to inspect any drawer at any time without seriously disturbing the 
heat of the dryer. The cheapness and effectiveness of such small dry- 
ers are such that every one can afford them. A dozen such small dry- 
ers all set in a row in a bank could be attended to by very few hands. 
They would also be preferable to very large dryers on account of the 
short time required to fill them, and their raisins can be dried long be- 
fore a larger dryer has been filled. 

As to the usefulness of steam or fire dryers there can be no doubt. 
The idea is not to entirely dry the raisins in them, but only to finish 
up the raisins when, on account of unfavorable climatic conditions, 
they do not dry any more out-of-doors. The question as to which are 
best, "machine-dried" raisins or those dried in the sun, is entirely 
unimportant. No one would think of drying raisins entirely in the 
dryer, as it would not pay. Raisins properly finished in the dryer are 
not inferior to those entirely sun-dried. 

Sweatboxes. — The sweatboxes should be made of strong lumber 
one inch thick. The length and width should be according to the 
size of the tray, and always one inch larger every way than the tray, 
in order that the raisins may be let down readily, or that they may 
receive a tray. The height of a sweatbox should be from six to eight 
inches, no more, as a greater depth will make them too heavy to be 
handled with ease by two men. Six inches in depth is better than 
eight. In order to secure the box and prevent it from splitting, the 
sides should be bound with hide, iron bands or with twisted galvan- 
ized wire. The latter is the strongest and best, costs the least, and is 
the easiest to put on. 

Trays for Drying. — The tray consists of a wooden frame made of 
well-dried half-inch lumber, nailed to cleats of one inch by one and 
one-half inch and of desired length. The lumber most commonly 
used is well-seasoned spruce. Pine, if not well seasoned, is apt to 
give the raisins a taste of the wood or of rosin, while redwood may 
discolor the raisins if exposed to rain or very heavy dew. But as 
the lumber attains age, it also becomes less injurious to the grapes. 
Cottonwood or poplar-wood, which can be obtained in some places, 
make most useful lumber for trays, as they do not contain any 
taste or other substance apt to injure the raisins. The size of the 
tray varies according to the idea of the raisin-grower, but the size gen- 
erally adopted is two by three feet. Formerly a smaller tray was 
used, but no smaller ones are now made. A larger size, three by three 
feet, is used by several growers, but, while it has the advantage of 
holding more grapes, it is also less readily handled than the smaller 
tray. In the southern part of California, a tray two and one-half l)y 
three feet is very popular. The tops of the trays are bought in the 
shape of shingles, which should be well dried before being uiiled, as 
they will otherwise shrink up and cause cracks to form in the tray, 
greatly to the detriment of the drying of the raisins. Loss is also 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 149 

caused by loose raisins dropping through such cracks. The cleats 
should be wet or green, or they will split in nailing. If too dry, they 
should be soaked in water over night or for a few hours. The shingles 
should be planed on the side which is to be placed upwards. The 
cost of the lumber for the trays varies from nine to twelve and one- 
half cents in the shooks. For nailing the trays together, a frame is 
made of wood and iron. The cleats are placed on the two short, oppo- 
site sides, with a heavy bar of iron immediately underneath so as to 
clinch the nails. The planed shingles are then placed on top and 
nailed to the cleats with round-wire nails, which clinch automatically 
on the lower side as soon as they strike the iron bar. No cleats are 
required on the long side of small size trays, but if a larger tray is 
used a bar on each side may be required to give the tray sufficient 
strength. A good workman, after a few days of practice, can com- 
fortably nail up four hundred trays a day. When the season is over, 
every tray should be nailed up and washed, or at least swept clean and 
stored dry. The age of a tray, if cared for, is about ten years. 

CALIFORNIA LYE-DIPPED RAISINS. 

General Notes. — In California the dipping of raisins in solutions of 
lye is 3^et in its very infancy, and I do not think that in the whole 
State over ten tons of lye-dipped raisins have been placed on the mar- 
ket yearly. But undoubtedly this process is destined to become of 
considerable importance, especially in localities where the drying of 
the first crop is accomplished with difficulty in the open air. The first 
and also most important condition in producing superior dipped raisins 
is that the grapes should be absolutely ripe. Unripe grapes will not 
produce any good raisins when dipped, but will turn reddish and 
otherwise become inferior. 

Dipping Process. — A good location for dipping raisins is by the 
side of an irrigation ditch, provided the water in the latter can be de- 
pended upon to flow constantly while the operation of dipping lasts. 
If not, the water must be procured by pumping or by means of pipes 
from reservoirs or water- works. Flowing water is of great importance 
in producing good dipped raisins, and is required for the perfect wash- 
ing of the grapes. For this purpose, if no ditch is available, a large 
trough may be used to advantage, and so arranged that the water in 
it can be kept changing through a continuous flow. The following is 
a cheap and efficient arrangement for dipping in actual use in one of 
the largest raisin vineyards, and can be recommended on account of 
its cheapness and easy working: On one side of the trough is a sta- 
tionary iron kettle with a fireplace underneath. By the trough is also 
placed an upright post, about five feet high, and on this balanced a 
liorizontal beam with a double motion. It can be raised and lowered 
at either end, or swung to the left or right with ease. On one end of 
the beam is a hook on which to hang the grape bucket. On the other 
side of the trough is a rough assorting table. Two or more buckets 
are needed. These buckets are common galvanized-iron buckets, per- 
forated thickly with holes, the latter not large enough to let any loose 



150 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

grapes through. In the kettle is kept constantly boiling a solution of 
water and potash. Soda is not suitable. The very best potash should 
be used in the proportion of about one pound to twelve gallons of 
water. The ripe grapes are now brought to the table and emptied 
in the buckets. A bucket is then hung on the beam, the latter swung 
and the bucket for a second lowered first in the pure water and then 
in the boiling potash; but it is immediately withdrawn and immersed 
in the water-trough. When rinsed for a few seconds, the grapes are 
taken out and spread on common raisin trays. If the weather is warm, 
the trays are stacked one on top of the other, and the grapes thus pre- 
pared are dried in the shade. 

The rinsing of the fruit before drying is of great importance, and 
by far not sufficiently understood. In Valencia the finest raisins are 
treated that way and thoroughly rinsed before being dipped in the lye. 
But nowhere in Spain are the grapes rinsed in water afterwards, and it 
is yet an undecided question if this rinsing improves or injures the 
raisins. It is certain that the washing cleanses the berries, as the 
water in the kettle is sometimes dark and dirty; but if it is an advan- 
tage to deprive the berries of the lye which more or less sticks to them 
is very doubtful. It is well known here that lye-dipped raisins are apt 
to mold if the rains set in while the drying lasts, while we are told 
that in Spain the dipped raisins do not spoil even if subjected to several 
.showers of rain. From this it will seem as if rinsing after dipping is 
not necessary or perhaps even injurious, but that, on the contrary, rinsing 
before dipping is of the utmost importance. It may be possible that 
the lye which adheres to the grapes will, in a great measure, prevent 
them from molding. 

In Spain no olive oil is used for mixing in the lye, and it is not 
likely that the oil process will come in vogue in California until it is 
fully demonstrated that it not only greatly improves the grapes, but 
that it also enables the grower to realize a correspondingly better price 
for his raisins. Those who care to experiment with it cannot do better 
than to follow the practice as it is used in Smyrna, for a full account 
of which we beg to refer to the article under that heading. We might 
here only point out that the oil-dipped raisins of Smyrna bring many 
times the price of the lye-dipped raisins of Valencia. The arrange- 
ment of dipping, kettles, etc., may, of course, be greatly varied. 
Steam may be used for heating the lye and the rinsing water, if it is 
desired to keep the latter hot, and regular trays might be used to hold 
the grapes, instead of the buckets referred to above. Every grower 
will no doubt vary these appliances to suit his own fancy, and improve 
upon the methods of others. As an example of the devices used by 
another grower, we here reproduce the following from an essay on 
bleaching raisin grapes, compiled by the chief viticultural officer, and 
especially referring to the system used by Mr. Byron Jackson : " Mr. 
Jackson places the grapes on a tray made with a frame of iron, which 
is covered with wire gauze with a quarter-inch mesh. The frame pro- 
jects upwards on the sides to prevent the fruit floating off while in the 
dip, and is made to receive, as a cover, the wooden tray on which the 
fruit goes to the dryer. When dipped and rinsed, the wooden tray is 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 151 

placed over the dipping tray, and two men transfer the fruit by turning 
over the two." 

The length of time required for dipping can only be ascertained by 
experience, and must differ with the strength of the lye, with the heat 
of the solution, and with the thickness of the skin of the grapes. 
Thus in different localities the strength of the lye and the length of 
immersion must always be different, and may even differ from year to 
year. When properly dipped, the skin of the grapes must show some 
very minute cracks, similar to cracks in glass which has been heated 
and suddenly immersed in or sprinkled with ice-cold water. Deep 
cracks are not desirable, as they will cause the juice of the pulp to leak 
out, after which the raisins will sugar. In Valencia the grapCb used 
for dipping are the various varieties of Muscats, while in Smyrna both 
Muscats and Sultanas are used. Corinths are never dipped, as they 
dry readily and make superior raisins without this process. 

Drying and Curing. — After the grapes are dipped, they must be im- 
mediately dried either in the sun, or in sun and shade alternately, or 
entirely in the shade. According to the circumstances attending the 
drying of the grapes, the color of the raisins becomes more or less red 
or yellow, transparent or opaque. The most perfect amber color is 
attained in the shade, while in the sun the color rapidly changes to 
reddish, a less desirable color in dipped raisins. The more favorable 
is the weather for drying, the choicer will be the raisins, and the better 
their color. If the sun is very warm and the chances are otherwise 
favorable for drying, the trays should be exposed to the sun only long 
enough to have their dip thoroughly evaporated, and for this purpose 
one day in the sun may suflSce. After this the stacking of the trays is 
advisable, and only occasionally may the trays be spread if the drying 
does not proceed rapidly enough. Such shade-dried dipped raisins 
will assume a beautiful amber-yellow color, and bring several cents 
more than those exposed to very warm sun. If, however, the weather 
is not very warm, the grapes must be dried in the sun, and the grower 
has then to be satisfied with the color that nature will give to his rai- 
sins. Dipped raisins do not necessarily require turning, as they gen- 
erally dry well anyhow in from four to six days in fair weather. For 
this class of raisins dryers are very useful to help finish the drying. 
Such dryers must be almost air-tight, as sandstorms would invariably 
spoil the raisins, which, on account of their stickiness, are almost 
impossible to afterwards cleanse. Dipped raisins should always be 
dried on their trays, and on special drying grounds, which should be 
so constructed that no sand can blow on them, or at least so arranged 
that in case of rain the sand from the ground will not be splashed over 
the trays. In California we have at present no such drying-floors, but 
it will pay any one who intends dipping his grapes to construct them 
either of bricks, bituminous rock or lumber. 

Ste7}iming, Grading and Packing. — Dipped raisins should be stemmed 
when well dried, and then graded in two grades. The proper recep- 
tacles for them are either sacks lined with paper, or twenty-pound 
boxes, in which they may be packed without fancy paper, or in the 
same way as prunes or other dried fruit. So far no uniform method of 
packing such raisins has been adopted in this State. 



152 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

As to the usefulness and future of dipped raisins, not much can be 
said at present. Our importations of Valencia raisins, which are mostly- 
dipped, are considerable, and as long as this class of cooking raisins is 
in demand, there is no good reason why we should not compete and 
endeavor to supply the demand. We can produce them as well as 
Spain can, and the only reason why we have not competed with Spain 
so far is that sun-dried raisins are so readily produced here, that it has 
not been to our advantage to produce anything else. There are, how- 
ever, many places in our State which will grow Muscatel grapes of 
good quality, but with too thick skins to make them proper for sun- 
dried raisins. For all such localities the dipping process is to be recom- 
mended, as it will enable the growers to produce marketable raisins, 
and to profitably supply the demand for this variety of raisins now 
imported to this country from abroad. In localities with early and 
copious fall rains, the dipping process will enable the growers to finish 
quickly before the rains set in. California dipped second-crop Musca- 
tels and Sultanas have brought as high as seven cents per pound 
wholesale. 



THE PACKING-HOUSE. 

BUILDINGS AND MBCHANICAI^ APPLIANCES. 

The Packing-house. — The packing-house should be large and airy 
and, whether it is made of lumber, brick or adobe, it should in 
preference to anything else be large. Room is needed at every 
operation in the packing-house, and it is hardly possible to get too 
much of it. So far no very large and perfect buildings for packing- 
houses have ever been erected in California ; the raisin industry is too 
young for that, and even the best of our buildings are only temporary 
ones. It is here not possible nor desirable to give any instructions 
how to build and arrange a raisin packing- house, as every packer will 
have his own ideas and his own necessities in this respect, and not two 
packers would build alike. All we can do here is to refer to what is 
needed in a general way, in order that the reader will get some 
preliminary ideas of what he will require when his raisin vineyard 
comes in bearing. 

. The packing-house should contain the following apartments : 
First, the general packing-room, in which the raisins are assorted and 
packed. Then the sweating-house or equalizing room, in which the 
boxes are stored for several weeks in order to equalize the moisture in 
the raisins. Then the stemming-room, in which the stemming and 
grading of the loose raisins is carried on. Then we have the weighing 
room, where the raisins are received from the field, and where they are 
weighed when this is required. There should also be an office and a 
pasting room, where the labels are pasted on the lining paper, and finally 
there should be plenty of veranda or shed room all around the building, 
where boxes of all kinds can be received and temporarily stored, either 
before the raisins are packed, or afterwards when they are ready to be 
shipped. We might also wish to have a room for a box factory, where 
boxes of all kinds are nailed up. This can in our climate best be done in 
the shed or under the veranda. The packing-house proper should be as 
large as all the other rooms together. It can hardly be made too large, 
as during the lively packing season hundreds of hands will here be 
busy, each one with his special work. The floor of the packing-house 
should be of matched lumber, and slanting towards the center, along 
which should run a small gutter. Any other material, such as cement, 
may also be used, the only object in view being that the floor can be 
washed from time to time and the dirt carried off through the gutter as 
readily as possible. The packing-room should have places for long 
narrow tables, at which the packing and assorting is done, and these 
tables can most conveniently be run the whole length of the room. 
At one end there should be room for the presses and the nailing tables, 
as well as storage room for empty and full boxes. 

The Sweating-house. — The sweating-house or sweating-room should 
immediately adjoin the packing-room. It should be built either of 



154 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 



matched lumber or of brick or adobe, in order that the temperature may 
be kept tolerably even and the moisture confined if necessary. The 
sweating-room in the Fresno Raisin and Fruit Packing Go's house in 
Fresno is large enough to contain 40 tons of raisins at one time, and is 
about 50 feet square, while the sweating-room on the Forsyth vineyard 
measures about 35 feet by 50 feet, and is built of brick in two stories, the 
lower one of which is used for raisins, the upper one for storage. For 
those who wish figures, we might state as examples of buildings, that 
the Forsyth packing-house, which also contains a sweating-room but 
not a stemming-room, is 120 feet by 35 feet, and contains besides a small 
platform outside for the reception of boxes, etc. The Fresno Raisin 
and Fruit Packing Go's building is about 150 feet by 75 feet. 







Raisin Stemmer and Grader. 



The Stemmer and Grader. — This large machine is a Galifornia 
invention. The principle on which it works is that the dry stems are 
separated by revolving the raisins rapidly in a drum made of perforated 
galvanized iron or of strong gah-anized wire. After the stems are 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 



155 



separated, the raisins fall together on screens of wire with various size 
meshes, through which the smaller berries are separated from the larger 
berries, while the refuse and broken stems are blown away by a fan. 
The most perfect stemmer and grader is the one on the Butler vine- 
yard. The raisins are first dumped into a hopper below the floor, 
and from there they are run automatically on a belt to the top of the 
stemmer, where they enter the drum. From the drum they fall on 
the separating screens, which grade them in three grades, each one 
falling in a box of its own. Somewhat similar stemmers are seen in 
all the large vineyards, all run by steam and large enough to stem and 
grade from forty to sixty tons of raisins a day. There is considerable 
difference as to the ingenuity with which these stemmers are built, 
some requiring many more hands to run them than others. The 
Butler stemmer requires, part of the time, only one man for its success- 
ful running. The Forsyth stemmer stands under a shed in the open 
air, apart from the packing-house, in order that the dust may be freely 
carried away. The smaller vineyards have stemmers run by hand, and 
have separate graders also run by hand, large enough to stem and 
grade from five to eight tons of raisins per day. 




Raisin Lever Press. 



156 THB RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

The Presses. — ^These are of two kinds, screw presses and lever 
presses. The screw press is much preferable (at least until the lever 
press may be perfected), as with it we can gauge the pressure given 
the raisins. The only press of this kind is found on the Raisina vine- 
yard of T. C. White. The press that is generally adopted, and the 
one that is most handy, is the lever press, which is so constructed that 
four boxes of raisins can be kept in the press at one time, or until the 
last box or part of a box is ready. By a pressure with the foot, the 
levers are released and the boxes freed from the pressure. While this 
press is exceedingly handy and quickly worked, the pressure cannot 
readily be gauged, and the raisins are apt to be injured by too heavy 
pressure. But it is likely that improvements will soon be made which 
will remedy this defect. 

Boxes and Cartoons. — The California raisin boxes are of three 
kinds, — whole boxes of twenty pounds, halves of ten pounds and 
quarters of five pounds. The wholes and the quarters are those most 
used, while the halves are seldom used or required. The cartoons are 
made of paper and contain two and one-half pounds of raisins each. 
The following are the measurements of raisin boxes and cartoons, and 
of the lumber required for making them. Twenty-pound box: 9 x i8 x 
4^ inches. Ten-pound box: 9x18 x2^Hnches. Five-pound box: 9 x 
18 X i%g inches. The foregoing are inside measurements. The tops 
and bottoms are one-quarter inch thick, 19^^ inches long and 9^ inches 
wide. The sides of the twenty-pound box are 19)^ inches long, 
4|4^ inches wide and three-eighths inches thick. The ends of a twenty- 
pound box are 9 inches long, 4^ inches wide and three-fourths of an 
inch thick. The sides of the ten-pound box are 19^ inches long, 
three-eighths of an inch thick and 2^ inches wide. The ends of a 
ten-pound box are 9 inches long, three-fourths of an inch thick and 2^ 
inches wide. The sides of a five-pound box are 19^^ inches long, 
three-eighths of an inch thick and i^e inches wide. The two and 
one-half pound cartoon is five inches wide, ten inches long and one and 
one-half inches deep. 

Packi?ig Frames or Packing- Trays. — These are of two kinds, accord- 
ing to the method of packing. For the top-up method, wooden frames 
large enough to hold five pounds of raisins are used. In length and 
width these frames correspond with the raisin box, but in height 
they are only one-third of a whole box, or about one and one-half 
inches. The bottom is a sliding one, and can be pulled out broadwise. 
The frame is first lined on the inside with the necessary paper, and 
then five pounds of raisins are placed in the paper. A follower or block 
of wood, large enough to fill the form or frame, is then placed on top, 
the frame is placed over an empty box, the sliding bottom quickly 
withdrawn, and the whole contents fall in the box below undisturbed. 
For the top-down method, frames of galvanized iron are used, slightly 
deeper than the former, but the bottom is a drop-bottom, resting on a 
flange, instead of a sliding bottom, as in the former tray. A loose 
plate of zinc is placed on top of the frame, the latter is inverted and 
placed over the box, and the zinc plate quickly withdrawn, when the 
contents covered by the loose drop-bottom (or by the facing-plate) 
fall into the raisin box. 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 157 

Facing-plate. — This useful tool was invented by T. C. White. It 
consists of a brass plate large enough to fit readily into the bottom of 
the raisin box. In this plate are arranged small cavities, each one 
wide enough to hold a large raisin. For large boxes the plate is made 
to contain eleven raisins the short way and eighteen the long way. 
The plate is first placed in the bottom of the iron frame in place of the 
loose bottom. A raisin is placed in each cavity and lightly pressed, 
and loose raisins are carefully filled in on the top. When this frame 
is afterwards reversed and the raisins and the plate as follower are 
received in the box, it will be found that the top layer has retained its 
arrangement and is regularly faced. This facing-plate enables the 
packer to face quickly and cheaply, but it can only be used when the 
top-down method of packing is used. The standard plate is nine 
inches by eighteen inches, and the plate for cartoons is five inches by 
ten inches, both made of heavy brass. 

Scales. — For weighing the quantity of raisins necessary for every 
layer, scales must be found on every weighing table. Any ordinary 
grocery scales which work with springs may be used. Generally one 
pair of such scales are used at each end of the assorting table. 

Labeling Press. — Of late every large packer labels his boxes before 
they are nailed together. This is done by passing the shocks through 
a labeling press, which prints under pressure the required label on 
each side or top, the name, etc., appearing in concave type on their 
face. These presses are run by machinery and work very rapidly. 

Tables. — In the packing-house are tables of various kinds; they are 
generally long and narrow, and about four feet wide. The assorting 
tables should be furnished with square holes at intervals of five or six 
feet, so that the loose raisins may be scraped through them into boxes 
below. The assorting and weighing tables are furnished with a low 
flange or guard all around, to prevent any raisins falling on the floor. 

Bags and Bag-holde?'s. — Two kinds of bags are used, — cotton sacks 
or jute sacks. The former are white like flower sacks, the latter 
coarser and brownish. In the former no paper linings are used, but in 
the latter a paper bag is stitched, in order that the air may not pene- 
trate and dry the raisins. Both kinds of bags are used to an equal 
extent. The cotton sacks contain either thirty or sixty pounds, while 
the jute sacks are made to contain an average of eighty pounds each. 
Patented bag-holders are used everywhere for holding the bags open 
while they are being filled. 

Trucks. — For inside work, trucks very similar to those used in the 
vineyard are now generally adopted. They are handled with ease, and 
for moving boxes of various kinds are absolutely indispensable in the 
modern raisin packing-house. 

Trays for Weiglmig. — These are small, shallow boxes, made of zinc 
or tin, and large enough to hold five pounds of raisins each. One 
short side of the tray should be slanting outward in order that the 
raisins may fall out readily. They are only used in weighing the 
raisins which are to go in each five-pound layer in the whole boxes. 

Followers. — These are wooden blocks of the size of a quarter box of 
raisins, inside measurement. They should be lined with zinc on the flat 



158 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

sides, in order that they may be washed readily, and also to prevent 
the sugar of the raisins from adhering to them. They should be large 
enough to just fit inside a box or frame, and are used to keep the raisins 
steady while being changed from the frame to the box. They are also 
placed on top of the raisin frames when they are being pressed. 

Paper. — Several kinds of paper are used in the raisin business. 
Heavy yellow manilla paper is used to place in the sweatboxes, one 
sheet between every two layers of raisins. The paper should be 
heavy, and cut to fit the box. Many growers use too short paper, 
which always has the inconvenience of causing the raisins to mix and 
become entangled. Only one whole sheet of paper should be used at 
a time; two short sheets will not answer, as, in lifting out a layer of 
raisins, the assorter takes hold of the four corners of the paper, and 
thus readily lifts out the raisin block. lyighter paper for lining the 
raisin boxes is used, both for layers and loose. The paper generally 
used is common book paper twenty-one by twenty-eight inches, and 
forty, fifty or sixty pounds to the ream in quality. Previous to being 
used, this paper is cut to fit the tray, a square piece being cut out of 
every corner. When placed in the tray, the central part of the 
paper fits the bottom of the tray, while the sides of the paper extend 
sufficiently over the sides of the tray to meet on top when folded over 
the raisins. Waxed tissue paper should always be placed on the top 
of the raisins in order to prevent the moisture from the raisins in- 
juring the colored and artistic labels. 

Colored lithographs or chromos of various designs and qualities are 
used for all raisins packed in boxes. When bought they come in 
three sizes. The central label should be nearly the size of the face of 
the box. The top labels are shorter pieces, almost as wide as the box, 
but only a few inches long. They are previously pasted to the top 
flaps of the lining. The side labels are twice as long as the face of the 
box, but not quite half as wide ; they are similarly pasted on the long 
side flaps of the lining. There is a great variety of designs used, some 
of which are not appropriate. Whatever designs we use, it will be to 
the advantage of every country not to imitate, but to use labels char- 
acteristic of the country and locality where the raisins are made. 

Tin Boxes. — For packing raisins for tropical countries, boxes made 
of tin should be used. The dampness in those countries causes raisins 
packed the common way to mold and spoil. No box should contain 
more than ten pounds of raisins, and the top should be so soldered on 
that it can be removed without cutting or injuring the box. The 
French system of soldering on by means of a narrow strip of tin, which 
can be wound up, is admirable, and could hardly be improved upon. 
Five ten-pound boxes should be packed in a light case made of light 
timber, and the whole package when closed should not weigh over 
sixty pounds. Four such cases will make one mule-load, and two 
such cases can be conveniently carried by one man. 

LOOSE RAISINS. 

Stemming and Assorting. — It must be understood that all the me- 
chanical appliances and tools mentioned above should now be on hand 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 159 

ready for use and properly placed. The several diflferent operations in 
packing, stemming, assorting, etc., of both loose and layers, will at times 
be carried on in different parts of the packing establishment at the 
same time, so as to meet the requirements of mixed lots or orders, the 
general shipments being of that nature. lyoose and layer raisins are 
produced more or less from almost every sweatbox brought into the 
packing-house, and the only delay to their being immediately disposed 
of is because the layer raisins must be sweated or equalized before 
they are ready for use. The loose raisins, provided they are properly 
or sufficiently dried, are ready to be handled as soon as brought from 
the vineyard. A loose raisin, or a bunch from which loose raisins are 
to be made, must be overdried rather than underdried ; at any rate, it 
must be so dry, that no juice will come out of it when the raisin is 
squeezed heavily or even torn. But a matter of greater importance 
even is that the stems should be brittle or sufficiently dry to break off 
readily. If they do not break, the raisins cannot be easily separated 
from the stem. The stems, instead of breaking off, will tear off, and 
the raisins will be open to the entrance of air, which will cause them to 
undergo a chemical change, to sugar and deteriorate. 

As soon as a perfectly dried sweatbox of third-grade or loose raisins 
enters the packing-house, it should be taken to the stemmer. Any 
delay in this is injurious to the raisins, as they will rapidly undergo 
a sweating or equalizing, causing the stems to soften and to lose their 
brittleness. It will, therefore, be seen that loose raisins must on no 
account be sweated or equalized before they have been stemmed. 
Besides, if the raisins are in any way moist, they will not shed the 
dust and dirt when being passed through the stemmer. It is there- 
fore to every raisin-grower's interest to so hasten the drying of the 
loose raisins that as many of them as possible can be out of the way 
when the layers, which take longer to dry, come in. This, as we 
have shown before, can only be done by assorting the raisins while 
green, and at the moment they are being picked from the vines. 
The different size bunches dry at different times, and the loose can 
then be partially disposed of when the layers are ready. The stem- 
mer and grader should separate the raisins in at least three grades : 
Number one, large loose; number two, smaller loose; number three, 
smallest seedless, to which may be added a number four, or rubbish. 
The large loose bring always a good price, and great care should be 
taken with them. After having passed through the stemmer and 
assorter once, they should be passed through a second or third time, 
in order that all the inferior or smaller raisins may be eliminated. 
In this way, a fine, large number one is had, which is sure to give 
satisfaction. Number two loose may be passed through a second 
time if the stemmer has not done its full duty, and the same may 
also be done with number three seedless. It always pays to do a 
thing well, and this holds good with raisins as with everything else. 
Colonel Forsyth, who has acquired a high reputation for his loose 
raisins, advocates and practices this repeated assorting, especially of 
the number one grade, in order that it may be entirely uniform. Too 
many poor raisins are generally found among the small seedless, and 



160 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 



if the}^ are to be made to partially replace the seedless Sultanas or the 
Currants in the same manner as the number two is expected to re- 
place the imported Valencias, they must be made clean from all 
rubbish. Onl}^ by producing a superior article can we hope to replace 
the imported dipped raisins by our loose Muscatels. 

Packing and C/eaning. — The number one and two loose are always 
put up in whole boxes of twenty pounds each, never in quarter boxes, 
but sometimes in cartoons, to be used as samples or as holiday gifts. 
In packing whole boxes, they may either be faced or not. If not 
faced, the work is very simple. The raisins are first brought to a 
large separate table with a guard all around its edges, so as to pre- 
vent the raisins from falling to the floor. On each such table are 
one or more small scales. The workmen gather the raisins with small 
shovels, and place them in quantities of twenty pounds each in tin 
trays, with the guards slanting at one end, in order that the raisins 
may fall out readily. These trays are then immediately carried by 
other hands to the packing-table close by. Here the proper papers 
are being placed in regular whole raisin boxes, the loose raisins are 
poured in from the trays, and from time to time looked over and 
cleaned. All poor or inferior raisins should be carefully eliminated, 
and only good ones allowed to be boxed. Finally the paper leaves 
are folded over, and the boxes are taken away to be nailed up. Num- 
ber two undergoes the very same process when packed in boxes. 




Raisin Truck for Packing-house. 

Sacking. — A very large trade is springing up in sacked raisins, and 
the demand for them is increasing every year. Both numbers two 
and three grades loose are now exported this way either in cotton 
sacks, or in jute sacks lined inside with paper. The jute sacks 
are by many preferred on account of their showing the dirt less, 
the cotton sacks generally arriving soiled at their destination. If 
cotton sacks are used for shipment East, they should be first placed 
in common burlap sacks, in order to arrive clean and attractive. The 
extra expense is not great, as the cheapest kind can be used for this 
purpose. 

Facing, Top-tip Method. — ^The facing is quickly done with the aid 
of White's facing-plate, but it can also be accomplished without it if 
the packer may so desire. The facing-plate, however, is greatly to 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 161 

be preferred, as we shall show directly. If no plate is used, the opera- 
tion is as follows : At the filling table, fifteen pounds of loose raisins 
are weighed off directly in the twenty-pound boxes. Then five pounds 
loose are weighed separately in a tin tray. The whole boxes are 
taken to the packing-table and placed close to the press, one on top of 
the other, the smaller trays, with five pounds each, are brought to the 
facer, who now takes one of the loose wooden frames with a sliding 
bottom and places in it the necessary papers. He then fills in the five 
pounds of loose raisins, smooths and spreads them out, and sees that 
no bad berries are among the good ones. This operation may also be 
performed by different hands, so as to divide up the work. This is 
probably the best and most economical way. The next step is to 
take the tray to the press and subject it to a certain pressure, so as to 
get a smooth upper surface on which to face or place the raisins in 
rows. When this is done the tray is taken to the facer. The facer 
now has in front of him a tray filled with the ornamental papers and 
the five pounds of raisins. The surface of the raisins is smooth and 
even. The next operation is to place large raisins in rows on the top 
surface. A small box with loose, large raisins should be at the side of 
the facer, who in taking each one of them at first presses it towards the 
table with the thumb of either hand, thus flattening out the raisin in 
order to make it appear large. When the tray is faced, it may again 
be subjected to slight pressure, but generally this is not needed. The 
contents of the tray are now transfen'ed to the twenty-pound box, 
which already contains fifteen pounds of loose. These loose raisins, 
which will be on the bottom of the box, are not generally wrapped in 
paper, although such would very much improve their appearance. 
The box is now ready for nailing. This top-up method is very inferior 
to the top-down method, as will be described further on. In packing 
with this method, only the wooden frame with the sliding bottom is 
used. The drop-bottom frame is only used for the top-down method. 
Facing, Top-dowji Method. — In using this method, the top layer is 
finished first, and the bottom last. The packing is done as follows: 
In the bottom of a tin or galvanized-iron tray, previously described, is 
placed one of White's facing-plates. As will be remembered, the 
frame has a loose drop-bottom, which falls out as soon as the tray is 
turned over. The facing-plate is placed either directly on this loose 
bottom, or on the flange supporting it, and always with the facing-cups 
upward. The facer now places loose selected raisins, one in each hol- 
low, presses his finger on the raisin and works it in the hollow until it 
becomes flattened. When all the cavities are filled, loose raisins are 
carefully filled in until the tray is full, when but a gentle pressure is 
required to steady the raisins and make them keep their places. In 
the meantime, fifteen pounds of raisins have been put in twenty-pound 
boxes and gently pressed. Some packers of choice raisins use a wrap- 
per and label for everj'- layer of five pounds, which greatly improves 
the general appearance of the box. After all is ready, a loose zinc 
plate is placed over the filled frame or tray, the latter is reversed and 
placed directly over the raisin box, in which has already been placed 
the required paper wrapper. The zinc plate, which only served to 



162 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY, 

steady the raisins while the frame was being turned, is now quickly- 
withdrawn, and the five-pound faced layer falls down in the box 
entirely undisturbed, kept so by the facing-plate which here acted as 
follower. The box is now ready for nailing, after a label and wax 
paper have first been placed on top of the plate. Without the facing- 
plate, a skilled facer can face some forty boxes a day, while from 
twenty to thirty boxes is a low average. With the facing-plate, the 
facing can be accomplished with more speed and accuracy. 

Comparative Value of the Two Methods. — The top-up method has 
several disadvantages. It requires a heavy pressure of the raisins to 
create a smooth, flat surface on which to face. But even if no facing 
is done, the top layer will always be more or less uneven, and requires 
heavy pressure to make it smooth, and appear well and to advantage. 
This heavy pressure always bursts many of the raisins, and causes 
them to sugar and spoil. It has also another disadvantage, that the 
facing of the top layer can only be done with the fancy paper pre- 
viously placed in the box. In facing and manipulating the raisins, 
this paper becomes more or less soiled and wet. In using the top- 
down method, the paper is placed in the box at the last moment, just 
before the final five-pound layer is emptied from the tray upon the fif- 
teen-pound layer below. I consider these advantages so essential that 
I must strongly indorse the top-down method, and I believe that, in 
course of time, it will be generally adopted by all packers who care for 
the keeping qualities of their raisins. As to the time and expense 
required by these two methods, there is but very little difierence. The 
top-down method is possibly a little slower and more expensive, but it 
is by far the better, and the difference in expense of packing is not 
great enough to be taken into consideration. 

I,AYER RAISINS. 

Sweating or Equalizing. — This is a process by which the overdried 
raisins are made to attract suflScient moisture from the underdried raisins 
in the same box or bunch, and whereby the overdried raisins are made 
moister, while the underdried ones become drier. Equalizing also moist- 
ens the stems suflSciently to prevent them from breaking when being 
handled. In our California climate, where the air is so dry, this equal- 
izing process is an absolute necessity, and no first-class raisin pack can 
be produced without the raisins having first been equalized. The word 
"equalizing " is to be preferred to "sweating," as the latter word may 
be misunderstood as meaning that a certain amount of heat is devel- 
oped by storing the raisins. Heat is indeed necessary, but it should 
come from the outside air, not from the inside or from the raisins. If 
from the latter the raisins will be in a fair way to become spoiled. In 
the foregoing I have described the construction and workings of the 
sweathouse. It may be suggested that, if there is no sweathouse on 
the vineyard, a large sail or canvas may be used as a substitute. 
The latter is simply thrown over the boxes where they are piled out- 
of-doors, and answers to some degree in keeping the raisins moist. 
But as this is only a substitute, I shall not dwell longer on its use- 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 163 

fulness. It may, however, be said in favor of this appliance, that 
it is used by one of our largest packers, and by him considered as of 
equal value if not superior even to a regularly constructed equalizing 
house. 

The raisins which are to be sweated are only the clusters or layers, 
and not the loose, which as we have seen should at once be taken 
from the field to the stemmer, while the stems are yet crisp and dry. 
It is therefore of importance that the bunches or layers should be 
separated from the loose already in the field, or, which is much prefer- 
able, before they are dried, at the time when they are picked from the 
vines. If the latter is done properly, there will be only a small quan- 
tity of loose which will go in the sweating-house with the layers. 
The layers should at any rate be placed at once in sweatboxes when 
taken from the trays, and between every two layers of bunches there 
should be a stout sheet of manilla paper, in order that the bunches maj^ 
not become mixed. When taken to the sweathouse the boxes should be 
so placed that air can enter every one. It will not do to place one box 
on top of another so as to cover up the top entirely, as the raisins are 
then apt to ferment in a very short time, and, before the raisin-packer 
is aware, whole piles may be absolutely spoiled. It is not necessary 
to place the boxes crosswise, as it is enough to allow the short side of 
each box to overlap the underlying box a little; sufi&cient air will then 
enter. In very dry weather the floor of the sweathouse may be sprin- 
kled with water, but this is generally not needed, as the underdried 
raisins will give out moisture enough to soften those that are too dry, 
as well as the stems. Every day the sweathouse should be aired, and 
it is a mistake to believe that all air should be excluded. If air is not 
daily admitted, the raisins will mold and spoil, and it is even advisa- 
ble to keep a circulation of air constantly through the house during 
the daytime. The attentive packer will soon learn to regulate this, 
and nothing but actual experience with his particular sweathouse 
will enable him to decide how much air should be let in and to what 
extent the doors should be closed. 

At the end of from ten days to three weeks, the equalizing process 
should be over, and the layers ready for further packing. When the 
boxes are removed, it will be found that the majority of those raisins 
w^hich had been too moist or underdried have dried sufficiently, while 
on the contrary the overdried raisins, as well as the formerly brittle 
stems, will have acquired sufficient moisture to enable the packer to 
manipulate them without risk of breaking the bunches. The raisins 
should be pliable, and stand moderate pressure without cracking or 
breaking. But while equalizing is an important operation, and one 
which we cannot dispense with, it is always to the grower's interest 
to so dry his raisins previously that they will require as little equal- 
izing as possible, as even the most carefully sweated raisins which 
have once been overdried will never afterwards equal those which 
were at once properly dried in the field. The overdried raisins will 
always have a tougher skin and be inferior in color; but on the other 
hand they will keep better than raisins which have been dried less. 



164 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

Grading and Weighing. — The next step after the raisins have been 
equalized is to remove them to the grading tables. This should not 
be done by dumping the contents of a sweatbox on the table, as in 
this way but very few of the real choice bunches are saved for the 
packer. If, however, the raisins have been placed carelessly in the 
boxes, without sufl5cient or perhaps without any man ilia papers between 
the layers, the only way is to dump out the contents. By first placing 
the sweatbox on the long side, and then turning it over, the raisins 
are but slightly disturbed. But to get these out afterwards from the 
chunk is the great difficulty, and many bunches must necessarily be 
broken. If, again, the raisins have been carefully handled and con- 
signed to the sweatboxes, with four papers in every box, not counting 
in the top cover, the care and handling of the sweatboxes will be 
much simplified. The sweatbox is then placed alongside of the grading 
table, and each layer with its paper is lifted out carefull}^, and placed 
on the table. The assorting is now to begin. The bunches are taken 
up one by one, all inferior berries are clipped out, all soft ones are sep- 
arated and placed in a box by themselves to be further dried. As each 
bunch is examined and cleaned, it is put in one of the weighing trays 
resting on small scales at either end of the table, and, when the 
scales indicate that five pounds of raisins are in the tray, the latter is 
removed to the packing table. 

In the meantime all loose or inferior bunches are raked down through 
the openings in the grading tables and received in sweatboxes below, 
to be either further dried or to be stemmed and graded at once. In 
packing several grades of layer raisins, the grading of the bunches 
should be made at this talDle. No great choice in selecting the 
bunches should be left to the packer, as his time should alone be 
occupied with the packing of his box. The best way is to have dif- 
ferently colored scales for number one and number two laj'ers, and 
when taking them out of the sweatbox assort them at once by placing 
them in different trays. The graders can never be too careful. No 
moist raisins, no small ones, no red and poor raisins, should ever be 
allowed among a better quality. They will lower the grade of the 
whole box, while the good quality of high-grade raisins will not raise 
the grade of a generally poor box. Thus, while the many good 
raisins in a poor box are not paid for according to their value, the 
few poor raisins which will be accidentally or carelessly smuggled in 
a good box will lower the value of the whole. Few packers will suffi- 
ciently understand this, which is really the principle of all good pack- 
ing, and which should be scrupulously adhered to. Even inferior 
size berries, if otherwise ever so good, should be carefully clipped 
from the large-berried bunches. It is astonishing how quickly the 
buyer will notice a few small berries, and how readily he will ignore 
the value of the largest raisins in the box. 

Packiyig Layers, Top-up Method. — As with packing the loose raisins, 
there are two methods, the top up and the top down. The top-up 
method can be as little recommended in this case as in the former, but 
as it is used by many of the packers I will here describe it : The 
trays containing the five-pound layers are placed in front of the 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 165 

packer on the packing table, so as to be within easy reach of the 
packer. The trays or frames with the sliding bottom are now used. 
The first move is to place one of the inner paper wrappers in the tray, 
and next the layers are placed in the frame as carefully as possible. 
There are two ways in vogue in which this is done. One of them is to 
crowd the raisins to one side, — "bunch" them, so to say, beginning 
at one end of the tray and gradually working towards the other end. 
This is the wrong way, which I am sorry to say is used by very many 
packers, who desire speed above everything, thus sacrificing care and 
quality and even appearance. Raisins packed this way point their 
ends upwards in a slanting way, which not only detracts from their 
appearance, but causes them to get entanged in each other. Such 
bunches when pressed will generally break, and, when lifted out of the 
box afterwards, will be very different from what they were when they 
were placed there in the first instance. The raisins, whatever method 
is used, should always be placed flat on the bottom of the tray. Care 
should be taken to arrange them so that they will fit, and only very few 
broken bunches should be allowed to fill unoccupied corners or spaces 
in the box. It is better even to leave such spaces empty than to tear 
up good bunches in order to get the small quantities needed, or in 
using inferior berries to fill up the holes. 

When at last the tray is full, and all the five pounds of raisins from 
the weighing tray are in, the upper surface should be smooth so as 
to require as little pressure as possible. When full the trays are taken 
to the press and stored on a side table until actually used. The presses 
are generally arranged for four trays. These are now placed under 
the press, a follower is placed on the top of every tray, and only suf- 
ficient pressure applied. Frequently too much pressure is used, and 
the raisins are flattened out to their greatest possible extent, many 
even crushed and so broken that the juice runs out. All such crushed 
raisins will sugar in a few months, and the whole box containing them 
will spoil and deteriorate in value. If, again, the raisins have been 
properly pressed, they will keep for months or even years. After the 
trays have been sufficiently pressed, which generally is accomplished 
in one minute's time, the pressure is released, the follower removed, 
the folders turned over the raisins, and the trays removed to the box- 
ing table, on which they may be allowed to accumulate until the boxer 
is ready to fill his boxes. On this table the final packing or ' ' making 
up' ' of a box is done. It takes four of these five-pound frames to fill 
one whole box. Each tray is in its turn placed over a box, the sliding 
bottom is quickly removed, and the five-pound layer drops down in 
the box undisturbed. Every fourth frame should, in addition to the 
common paper wrapper, have labels and fancy paper pasted on the 
folders, or, as is sometimes done, an extra fancy folder or wrapper is 
placed on the third layer, and on the top or inside of it the fourth layer 
is dropped. Each layer will thus be found in its own wrapper, but 
the upper layer will have two, the outside one of which is fancy. Fine 
layers should have a waxed paper immediately above the raisins, in 
order that the moisture or sugar from them may not spoil the labels. 



166 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

On the top of the waxed paper the chromo or label is placed. The 
box is now ready for nailing. 

Packing Layers, Top-down Method. — This method I advocate as the 
most proper one to use. Thin galvanized-iron trays with a drop bot- 
tom are used. On the top of the drop bottom is placed a heavy fol- 
lower of metal. White's facing-plate, turned over, can be used to great 
advantage, even where no facing is required. The choicest bunches 
are now selected and spread evenly on the bottom of the tray; other 
bunches are placed on top of them, and so on until the tray is full. 
Great care must be taken in packing so as to make the bunches fit 
each other and lie solid; otherwise they are very apt to be disturbed, 
or they will require too heavy pressure to be kept in place. When the 
tray is full, it is gently pressed, and the pressure kept up for a few 
seconds. A loose zinc plate is then placed over the tray, the latter is 
turned over and placed over the box, in which the necessary wrapping 
papers have been previously placed, the loose zinc plate is quickly 
withdrawn, and the contents fall into the box. The heavy follower 
keeps the top layer steady, and with a little care the raisins are not 
disturbed. 

The top-down method for packing layers has the following advan- 
tages over the top-up method. It gives a smooth surface on which to 
pack the top layer, without necessitating pressure to first create such a 
surface, the packing being done on a hard plate. The wrappers are 
not soiled, as they are not first placed in the frames. The packer is 
enabled to pack and select his choicest bunches for the top layer while 
he has plenty to select from, and any odd berries and broken or smaller 
bunches come naturally in the bottom of each layer. In the top-up 
method all such odds remain for the top, where they must go in, in 
order to make up the required five pounds. 

A raisin-packer averages seventy-five trays of five pounds each per 
day, for which she is paid two cents each. Some pack more than this; 
but very excellent packing proceeds slower, and a packer of very choice 
layers can only pack twenty-five trays of five pounds each per day, for 
which a correspondingly higher price is paid. In Malaga, a trained 
and expert packer receives between two and three dollars per day. In 
California, they do not receive any more. In our raisin district, the 
girls are rapidly becoming expert packers, and the same ones are reen- 
gaged year after year by the same packing-house. 

Filling. — The filling of the raisins is a trick to make them appear 
larger than they are. This filling was invented in Spain, and is used 
there especially on Dehesa boxes and where very expensive packing 
is required. It is done in the following manner. The raisin is first 
flattened out as much as possible, then the edges are bent, making the 
raisins slightly concave. In placing the concave side downwards, a 
smaller raisin is slipped underneath so as to cause the manipulated 
raisin to keep its shape. These filled raisins are used for facing only. 
The Spanish filled raisins have been handled to such an extent that 
all the bloom is lost, and the raisin looks anything but attractive. 
The California method of filling is a great improvement on the 
Spanish way. When the facing-plate is used, the raisin is first placed 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 167 

in a cavity on the plate, then worked out by a pressure with the 
finger, and when sufficiently concave another raisin is dropped in the 
hollow and pressed tightly. The faced raisin is thus filled, and when 
seen from the other side will appear much larger than otherwise. 
When, again, the top-up method of packing is used, a small block of 
wood may be employed. This block contains a single cavity of the 
size, that a raisin when pressed will fill it. The counterpart of this 
block is furnished with a convex protuberance, and when the two 
halves are placed together with a raisin between, and pressure is 
brought to bear, the raisin flattens out and becomes concave just 
enough to receive the filling. 

In this way no handling with the fingers is done, and the raisin 
keeps its bloom undisturbed. Nothing is more attractive than a raisin 
with its bloom untouched; similarly the raisin that has lost its bloom 
always gives the buyer an idea that it has been fingered. Its appe- 
tizing quality is gone. Spanish Dehesas are generally both faced and 
filled. Some objection to this method is that it deceives, but as long 
as people not only are willing to be deceived but are actually anxious 
to pay for the deception, there is no reason why the filling should not 
be used. The deception, besides, is a very innocent one. It has also 
another excuse: A well faced and filled box is really a work of art; 
it will help to educate the people up to the appreciation of what fine 
raisins and fine packing should be. Filling and facing combined are 
practiced but little in California, and it is doubtful if filled facing will 
ever grow in much demand here. 

Nailing and Trimming. — The boxes are next moved to the nailing 
table. Two nails are put in the short sides and two in the long sides 
of the cover. The boxes when nailed are passed to the trimmer, who 
with a drawknife trims the edges and cuts off the corners diagonally. 
The latter prevents the boxes or covers from splitting. The best nails 
are French wire nails for the sides and ends, one and one-quarter 
inches long, and for tops and bottoms one inch long. 

Labels. — I cannot finish this part without adding some words about 
our labels. It is of importance that our labels and colored lithographs 
should be appropriate. The time has come when our raisins should 
stand upon their own merits, and should be designated with . appro- 
priate names. I should wish to see only California names used, 
California layers instead of L^ondon layers, California scenes instead 
of foreign scenes, which give no idea of our conditions, and which 
do not help to advertise our State and its resources. Whatever our 
labels may represent, they should be distinctly Califomian. Another 
point which is but seldom observed on these labels is the shape and 
color of our raisin grapes. The latter are often represented on the 
labels, but their shape is seldom observed. Nowhere have we seen on 
them a true Gordo Blanco or a true Muscat of Alexandria repre- 
sented, the grapes there pictured being impossible as raisin grapes, 
or even well-known wine or table grapes, out of which no raisins could 
be made. The packer has a right to protest against such misrepre- 
sentations of our fair graDes. especially as the lithographer could just 



168 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

as readily and just as cheaply have followed the originals. A beau- 
tiful label is well worth its price. As a work of art, it is seldom 
thrown away, but is carefully kept and made to adorn the walls of 
many a humble home, in which the name and fame of our State will 
soon be a household word. Let these labels go out by the million 
yearly to tell of our climate and of our soil, and of the land where the 
luscious raisins are produced, with the same care as apples or garden 
stuflf in countries less favored by nature. 



STATISTICS OF IMPORTATION, PRODUCTION 
AND PRICES. 



Production of Raisins in California from i8yj to i88p 



Twenty-pound boxes. 

1873 6,000 

1874 9,000 

1875 11,000 

1876 19,000 

1877 32,000 

1878 48,000 

1879 65,000 

1880 75,000 

1881 90,000 



Twenty-pound boxes. 

1882 115,000 

1883 140,000 

1884 175,000 

1885 500,000 

1886 700,000 

1887 800,000 

1888 963,000 

1889 1,000,000 



The California crop, from 1885 to 1889, was divided between the 
various raisin districts of the State about as follows : 



Fresno 

Riverside and San Bernardino . . 
Orange County and Los An- \ 

geles County . J 

Woodland and Davisville 

San Diego 

Tulare 

Kern 

Scattering 



1885. 



107,000 
129,000 

139,000 

67,000 

10,000 

6,000 



470,000 



1886. 



225,000 
195,000 

180,000 

75,000 

25,000 

8,000 

15,000 



723,000 



1887. 



350,000 
190,000 

85,000 

125,000 
20,000 
10,000 

20,000 



800,000 



1888. 



440,000 
270,000 

42,000 

115,000 
40,000 
11,000 

25,000 



943,000 



1889. 



475,000 
265,000 

8,000 

120,000 

75,000 

15,000 

4,000 

25,000 



987,000 



Number of Acres in Raisin Grapes in California in i8go : 

Fresno district 30,000 acres. 

Balance of San Joaquin valley 10,000 

San Bernardino district 5,000 

San Diego and El Cajon 6,000 

Yolo and Solano 8,000 

Balance of the State 7,000 



66,000 " 
This includes grapes in bearing, as well as vines lately set out. 



170 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

Calif oryiia and Malaga Prices, hnportations , etc. , from iSyr to i88p: 

The following statistics of prices of California and Malaga raisins have 
been mostly compiled from various sources, such as the Fresno jSx- 
positor, the San Francisco foiirnal of Coi7t7nerce, the Fruit Grower, etc. 
These statistics and notes will give a fair idea of the progress made 
by the raisin industry in this State since 1873, the year when our 
raisins first cut any conspicuous figure in the market of this continent. 
The first struggle of the raisin-producers of this Coast was directed 
against the importers of Malaga raisins, and against the prejudice of 
our own consumers. It took about ten years to supersede the Malaga 
product by our own. The following table gives the importation of 
Malaga raisins to this State from 187 1 to 1884 : 

Twenty-pound boxes. Twenty-pound boxes. 

187I 16,534 1881 1,719 

1872 36,153 1882 1,218 

1873 27,692 1883 633 

1874 35,447 1884 1,437 

1875 22,228 1885 800 

1876 29, 187 1886 — 

1877 13,357 1887 — 

1878 14,824 1888 — 

1879 10,884 1889 — 

1880 3,988 

It will be observed that the imports began to fall oflf in 1875, being 
that year more than 13,000 boxes short of the preceding year. In 
1876 the importations struggled back to 29,187, still being more than 
6,000 boxes short of the importations of 1874; and then the battle was 
practically won, for in the succeeding years the importations dwindled 
away until in 1883 only 633 boxes were imported. The figures from 
1886 to date are not obtainable, but are so insignificant as to be consid- 
ered unnecessary to record. 

18^3. — In 1873 the market was liberally supplied with Malaga rai- 
sins, which brought at wholesale the following prices: Layers, whole 
boxes, $3.00 to $3.75; half boxes, $3.62^; quarters, $3.75; eighths, 
$4.00 to $4.25; London layers, $4.50. 

1874.. — Coming down to 1874, the Malaga still holds the fort, layers 
bringing $3.25 for whole boxes, and $3.12^ for half boxes, with the 
customary advance on fractions. In all this time the California raisin 
was too insignificant for notice, and was not quoted by commercial 
papers. 

1875. — On January 14, 1875, this significant comment appears in 
the fournal of Commerce: ' 'A decided change is being wrought in the 
markets of this coast respecting the use of Malaga raisins, figs, Zante 
currants, Hungarian prunes, almonds, walnuts, etc. In fact, from this 
time forward Pacific Coast supplies of bunch raisins and dried fruits 
generally are to be produced here in large quantities, and in favorable 
seasons we will doubtless have a large surplus of almonds (hard, soft 
and paper shells), English walnuts, chestnuts, hickory nuts, raisins, figs, 
etc." 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 171 

On November 4, 1875, it was recorded that up to the ist of Novem- 
ber there had been received 6,000 boxes of California raisins, "the 
quality generally good," worth from eight to ten cents per pound, say 
$2.00 and $2.25 per box of twenty-two pounds net; London layers, 
$3.50 and $3.75. 

i8'/6. — In January of 1876 Malagas were quoted at $3.25 and $3.50, 
California raisins bringing ten and twelve and one-half cents per pound. 
The following comment was made at that time, which may be consid- 
ered as another mile-stone in the progress of the California industry: 
*' Malaga raisins have been imported to very much less extent the 
present than last season, owing to the large products of California 
cured, which latter have amounted to upwards of 30,000 boxes, about 
one-half of which have been of prime quality, suitable for table use, a 
portion being poorly ciired and considerably inferior to the imported, 
but have sold at lower rates for ordinary cooking purposes." 

The California raisin was now fairly on its feet, so to speak, and was 
in lively competition with the Malaga dried grape. The market reports 
spoke well of Blowers' California Muscatels and Briggs' bunch raisins. 
The jobbers, however, were loth to give up the Malaga; but to sell 
that article they had to import an extra choice quality, as the public 
was beginning to show a marked preference for the home product. In 
proof of this the following extract, dated November 9, 1876, is given: 
' ' The quality of the Malaga raisins now here is superior to any ever 
before imported, and have a preference over our best California raisins. 
This, however, will not always be the case, as experience makes per- 
fect, and in a few years we will be entirely independent of the Old 
World for all sorts of dried fruits." 

iSyj. — In November, 1877, very complimentary notice is made of 
Blowers' layer raisins from Woodland, which brought $2.75 and $3.00 
per box. Briggs' raisins were worth $2.25 and $2.70. This extract, 
dated January 18, 1877, is still another landmark in the raisin indus- 
try: "The consumption of raisins has been fully up to the average of 
past years, yet divided between Malaga imports and our own Califor- 
nia production. Of the latter, upwards of 20,000 boxes have been 
already marketed; and, had it not been for the unusual and unexpected 
heavy rainfall in October, there is every reason to believe that our 
home crop of bunch and layer raisins would have reached 50,000 
boxes of twenty pounds each. Blowers' Muscat raisins were superior 
and in every way equal to the imported. Briggs, of Marysville, also 
turned out several thousand boxes of bunch, and others have made a 
creditable beginning. Enough has been done here in this line to sat- 
isfy our grape-growers that raisin-curing is to be, in the near future, a 
prominent California interest, and, to do it successfully, the sun-drying 
process is infinitely superior to that of machine-drying. Sheds must 
be erected and prepared in time to protect the fruit from early rain, and 
then the working process is sure to all who have the right kind of 
grapes. Then uniform weight in twenty, ten and five pound boxes, all 
handsomely put up in fancy papered boxes, and California then will be 
prepared to secure all the raisin trade west of the Rocky Mountains, 
and a good part of that of the Eastern States. As it is, those of our 



172 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

merchants importing Malaga raisins from New York confine themselves 
to London layers and others of the best and choicest quality, leaving 
the home market to be cared for, in a great measure, by those of our 
own production. As a result, raisins have ruled low all the winter, 
and are likely to do so for a long time to come. ' ' 

i8j8. — In 1878 several carloads of California raisins were sent to 
Chicago, New York and Boston, and were well received by the trade. 
In October of that year, California layers were bringing $2.50 and 
$3.25. Imports had fallen away more than forty per cent from the fig- 
ures of 1874. 

iSjg. — In 1879 the ruling prices for California raisins, in lots of 250 
boxes and upwards, were: Common layers, $2.00 for wholes, $2.25 for 
halves, $2.50 for quarters, $3.00 for eighths; London layers, $2.25 to 
$2.50 for wholes, $2.50 to $2.75 for halves, $2.75 to $3.00 for quarters, 
$3.25 to $3.50 for eighths. 

1880. — In October, 1880, the following quotations were made: 
Briggs' layers, $2.00 and $2.75 per box. California raisins, in lots of 
250 boxes and upwards, common layers, $2.50 and $2.25 per box; Lon- 
don layers, $2.50 per box. 

1881. — In November of 1881, Malaga ruled high in the East, and 
in consequence prices were generally higher here, quotations for the 
California article running $2.50 for wholes, $2.75 for halves, $3.00 for 
quarters, and $3.25 for eighths, in lots of one hundred boxes. London 
layers, twenty-five cents per box more. 

1882. — In 1882 prices ran $2.37^^ and $2.75. During all the period 
just reviewed, the duty was two and a half cents per pound on raisins; 
but in March, 1883, the duty was reduced to two cents, and yet impor- 
tations for that year were only 633 boxes, — a rather singular fact. The 
reduction in duty does not seem to have had a very bad effect on prices, 
because, as is easily evident from the small importation, no competition 
to speak of was encountered in the local market, and, as in that year 
the imports at New York from Spain were many thousands of boxes 
short, Eastern competition was reduced to a minimum. Prices here 
ruled through the year at an average of from seven to eight cents a 
pound, anything especially choice bringing better prices. 

188 J. — In 1883 California made a big stride forward in packing and 
curing, and fancy raisins were put up in layers and cartoons. The 
Dehesa brand and other fancy brands made their appearance, and as 
high as one dollar was paid for quarters of five pounds each, and T. C. 
White's and Miss Austin's brands became famous. 

188^. — In 1884, the year following that in which the duty was 
reduced to two cents, the follovv^ing prices prevailed: 

In January the following quotations are recorded: Malaga layers, 
$3.50 for wholes, $5.00 for halves, and $5.50 for quarters in frames. 
Valencia raisins, fifteen cents per pound. Loose Muscatels, $1.60. 
London layers, $4.00. Briggs, wholes $2.50, — usual advance of twenty- 
five cents on fractions. Blowers, wholes % , quarters $3.50, eighths 

$3.75. Other raisins, $2.50 in large lots; quarter and eighth boxes 
twenty-five cents higher. 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 173 

In August the following were the quotations: Malaga layers, $3.50 
for wholes, $4.00 for halves, and $4.50 for quarters in frames. Valen- 
cias, fifteen cents per pound. Loose Muscatels, $1.90. London layers 
$3-oo. Bnggs, wholes $1.40, halves $1.75, quarters ^2.25, eighths $2.75. 
Blowers, wholes $2.25, halves $2.50, quarters $2.75, eighths $3.00. 

In October the following quotations are to be found: Common layers, 
$1.00 to $1.25 for wholes, $1.50 for halves, $1.75 for quarters, $2.25 for 
eighths. London layers, $1.35 to $1.50 for wholes, $1.95 for halves, 
$2.00 for quarters, $2.50 for eighths. 

In November, 1884, the following comment is made: The California 
raism pack will probably be 100,000 boxes. There would have been 
much more but for the October rains, that prevented proper curing. 
The crop in Europe is short, too, and prices are much higher than they 
were a year ago. It is said that 15,000 boxes have been sold for the 

f'^ '^^ ^"°^^' ^^^^Sa- layers, $3.75 for wholes, $4.00 for halves, 
and $4.50 for quarters in frames. Valencia raisins, fifteen cents per 
pound. Loose Muscatels, $1.90. London layers, $4.00. Briggs 
wholes $1.75, halves $2.00, quarters $2.35 to $2.50. Blowers, wholes 
$2 00, halves I2.25, quarters $2.50, eighths $2.75. California layers, 
wholes $1.50, halves $1.75, quarters $2.00. 

^i^■^^~ ^^ ^^^^ ^^^ market showed a gratifying ability to ^absorb at 
profitable rates a good article, for prices ran: California common layers, 
$1.75 for wholes, $2.00 for halves, $2.25 for quarters. Briggs, wholes 
I2.00, with an advance of twenty-five cents on fractions. Blowers, 
$2.25 for wholes, with an advance of twenty-five cents on fractions. 

i8S6.— ln 1886 quotations show that only extra choice Malagas 
were imported, and that, too, for a limited trade. Prices were: Malaga 
layers, $4.00 for wholes, $4.25 and $4.75 for halves and quarters. Va- 
lencia raisms, fifteen cents per pound. London layers, $3.00. Cali- 
fornia layers, wholes $1.75, -usual advance of twenty-five cents on 
fractions. Briggs, wholes $2.00, halves $2.25, etc. Blowers, wholes 
$2.25, — usual advance on fractions. 

For 1886 the market is reviewed as follows: The past year has been 
the greatest for California dried fruit that the State has ever seen. 
There has been an increase in every item, and a specially heavy 
increase m the matter of raisins, the production of which has increased 
so fast that they have become a leading article of merchandise. Where 
we were large importers and generous consumers, more in proportion 
to our size than any one else in the world, we have almost totally 
ceased importation and are among the largest producers and exporters 
in the world, next to Spain itself The total receipts of imported 
raisms at New York for the season of 1886-87 were as follows: 911 816 
boxes of Valencias, 427,936 boxes of Malagas, 400 half boxes of Ma- 
lagas, 88,657 boxes of Sultanas. The California pack is this year 
almost doubled, and shows great improvement in quality and packing. 
/c?c?7.— In October, 1887, prices were quoted as follows: London 
layers, per box, $2.00 to $2.25. Loose Muscatels, from $1.50 to ^1.80. 
_ Riverside, El Cajou and Fresno raisins of excellent quality are now 
in the market, and Butler and Forsyth raisins in Fresno begin to rival 



174 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

the very best imported brands. Many large packing-houses are estab- 
lished in Fresno, Riverside and El Cajon. 

1888. — The pack reaches in California 850,000 boxes, and the Fresno 
as well as the Riverside raisins are very large and choice. Forsyth and 
Butler raisins take the lead, some of the choicest layers bringing as high 
as one dollar per five-pound quarter box. Only 112,000 boxes of Ma- 
laga raisins are imported to the United States. 

In October, 1888, the following prices were obtained for imported 
raisins at auction sale in New York: 645 boxes best London Layers, 
$3.25 to $3.12^; 348 Imperial Cabinets, $3.35 to $3.20; 200 fine De- 
hesa Bunches, $4.50 to $3.75; 50 Imperial Dehesa Bunches, $5.65; 104 
Dehesa Bunches, $4.05 to $4.00; 100 Finest Selected Clusters, $4.45 to 
$4.40; 50 Finest Royal Clusters, $4.75; 3 Imperial Excelsior Dehesa 
Loose Muscatels, $5.00; 140 Imperial Loose Muscatels, $3.30 to $2.15; 
I Imperial Excelsior Dehesa Clusters, $5.50; 9 Imperial Dehesa Clus- 
ters, $5,123^ to $5.00; 2 Dehesa Dessert Fruit, $4.10; 1,194 Finest Va- 
lencia Layers, 8^ to 8 cents; 899 Finest Valencia Raisins, 7 to 6^ 
cents; 150 half boxes Finest Valencia Layers, 8^ to 8 cents; 246 
boxes Finest Sultanas, 8^ to 8 cents. 

At the same time California layers were quoted at from $1.80 to 
$2.25 for medium grades, while for Dehesa and Imperial quarter boxes 
from eighty cents to one dollar were realized. Raisins in sweatboxes 
were bought by packers at five cents per pound, prices not rated ac- 
cording to quality. 

i88g. — The crop of 1889 was not as large as at first calculated, on 
account of loss through unusual and heavy rains. It was especially 
the second crop which suffered. The first crop was good, and brought 
good prices, average layers bringing from $1.75 to $2.25 per box of 
twenty pounds. Great improvement is made in packing and labels, 
and our average raisins are better than the average imported Malagas. 
Our choicest layers, however, do not yet equal in size, curing and 
packing the choicest Malagas, and no efforts have been made to com- 
pete with them. There are at least four higher grades packed in 
Malaga which we do not produce here. During last season raisins in 
sweatboxes have ruled higher than before, and have been bought by 
packers at from three to seven cents. 

18 go (to July). — The crop promises to be as large as last year. It is 
greatly in demand, and representatives of Eastern and California dealers 
have already bought up the most of the coming crop at prices averaging 
one-half a cent more per pound than last year. 

From the above statistics we learn that through the production of 
raisins in California the price of sun-dried raisins to the consumer on 
this coast has been lowered from $3.00, $3.75, $4.00 and $4.50 in 1873 
to $2.00 and $2.50 in 1890. The importation of Malaga raisins in the 
United States has greatly diminished, while that of Valencia or " dipped " 
raisins has increased. In 1873, the United States imported 35,271,312 
pounds of raisins, for which it paid $2,292,948, while in 1888 our im- 
portation was 40,340,117 pounds, or about five million pounds more, 
for which we paid $2,098,503, or about $200,000 less. 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY, 



175 



Exports of Valencia Raisins from 1830 to i88p, according to English 
estimates : 



Year. 



England. 



America. 



Other Places. 



Total Tons. 



1850 
1851 
1852 
1853 
1854 
1855 
1856 

1857 
1858 

1859 
i860 
I861 
1862 
1863 
1864 
1 865 
1866 
1867 
1868 
1869 
1870 
1871 
1872 

1873 
1874 

1875 

1876 

1877 

1878 

1879 

1880 

i88i 

1882 

1883 

1884 

1885 

1886 

1887 

I 

I 



9.423 
8,491 
8,844 
7,883 
7,206 

7,464 
8,909 

9,485 

13,542 

9,546 

7,257 
8,072 

7,564 
12,290 

8,655 
9,863 

12,735 
12,701 

14,293 

8,434 

10,060 

12,578 

15,677 
10,796 

13,724 
12,568 

15,272 



15,231 
13,026 

17,507 
18,121 
19,644 
10,210 
10,250 

15,194 
16,648 

15,524 
12,000 



165 
285 
320 

99 
296 

736 



654 

163 

2,831 

63 

125 

38 

362 

403 
668 

3,095 
1,857 
2,210 
5,210 
4,088 
2,960 

5.513 
6,590 
3,816 



9,525 

8,977 

10,169 

21,593 

16,722 

9,686 

9,397 
15,687 
18,831 
12,245 
14,645 



787 

70 
50 

85 
12 

182 
113 
454 
143 
238 
100 
182 
12 

473 

177 

794 

25 

no 

625 

535 
710 

439 
595 
676 



1,244 
892 

969 
1,732 

3,983 
4,289 

3,596 
16,113 

3,479 
4,655 
1.724 



9.588 

9,563 
9,164 
8,052 

7.552 

8,285 

8,921 

7,900 

14,378 

9,822 

10,542 

8,278 

7,900 

12,515 

8,875 

10,237 

13,611 

13,546 

18,182 

10,316 

12,380 

18,413 
20,300 
14,466 
19,676 
19.753 
19.764 



26,100 
22,895 
28,625 
41.346 
40,349 
24,185 
23,243 
36,994 
38.958 

32,424 
27,369 



176 TH:e RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

Exports of Malaga Raisins from i86^ to i88g . 



Year. 


,, „ British 
^- "• Colon's 


Great 
Britain. 


France. 


North 
Europe. 


South 
Am. 


Sundries 


Total 
Boxes. 


Total 
Tons. 


1864 

1865 

1866 


879.794 

879,794 

907,305 

966,724 

1,053,726 

767,321 

1,331,937 

1,147,633 

1,325.705 

1,368,822 

1,320,000 

976,000 

1,321,000 

1,250,000 

1,182,088 

1,146,228 

1,115,101 

1,043,727 

967,571 

120,000 


45,906 
75,708 
72,208 
96,124 

125,407 
58,265 

120,0-59 
98,817 
95,024 
45.495 
43,490 
42,000 
52,000 
56,600 
58,242 
30,598 
46.717 
31,730 
38,431 


258,458 
269,072 
220,756 
166,737 
222,426 
175,602 
216,015 
183,916 
383,890 
241,325 
240,000 
271,000 
357,000 
250,000 
194,471 

237,659 
174,126 

141,415 
176.349 


137,379 
171,743 
178,862 
129,391 
163,306 
117,612 

90,193 
161,123 
230,046 
196,239 
200,000 
203,000 
276,000 
300,000 

330,767 
368,420 
297,412 
251,382 
277.253 


59,659 
64,319 
62,076 
58,222 
64,262 
82,472 
57.687 
69,800 
72,788 
99,424 
99.500 
98 000 
115,000 
100,000 
99,661 
107,888 
108,222 
101,828 
130,646 


109,741 
95,658 

115-305 
116,762 
103,082 
67.634 

113.755 

87,242 

119,042 

98,429 
63,688 
75,456 
81,196 
98,007 


209,000 
255,000 
191,000 
135,000 
215,000 
80,800 
270,000 
274,000 

140,000 

98,000 
91,000 

211,000 
170,000 
197,000 
147,000 
178,000 


1,200,000 
1,800,000 
1,750,000 
1,670,000 
1,950,000 
1,350,000 
2,200,000 
2,200,000 
1,920,000 
2,500,000 
2,160,000 
1,670,000 
2,252,000 
2,200,000 
2,180,000 
2,125,000 
2,015,000 
1,800,000 
1,200,000 

850,000 
850,000 
750,000 


13,200 
19,800 
19,250 
18,370 


1867 


1868 


22,450 
14,850 


1869 


1870 

1871 


24, 200 
24,200 


1872 

187-? 


21,120 
27,500 


187J. 


23,760 


187"; 


18,370 
24,772 
24,200 


1876 


1877 


1878 


23,980 
23, 372 


187Q 


1880 


22,165 


1881 


19,800 


1882 


13,200 


188^ 




1884 


_ 


1885 

1886 


- 


1887 


9,350 


1888 


8,250 


1889 









First Cost of Crop of Valencia Raisins^ according to the ' ' California 
Fruit Grower : ' ' 

1884, from $4.cx> to $6.00 per hundred pounds. 

1885, " 5.00 to 6.00 

1886, " 3.00 to 5.00 

1887 4.00 

1888, from 2.00 to 4.00 

1889, 3.50 

Production and Distribution of Smyrna Raisins from 1844 to j88^, 
according to U. S. Consular Reports : 

1844 8,000 tons. 1879 75,000 tons. 

1868 19,000 " 1881 49,000 " 



187 1 48,000 

1872 31,000 



95,000 



According to English estimates, the raisin crop of Smyrna only 
reached 27,000 tons in 1876, and was divided as follows : 

Red Raisins. — Chesme 5, 100 tons. 

Vourla 5,000 " 

Yerly 2,800 " 

Carabouma 1,600 " 

14,500 tons. 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 



177 



Sultanas. — Chesme 7,400 tons. 

Vourla 3, 100 ' ' 

Yerly 1,150 " 

Carabourna 800 ' ' 



12,450 tons. 



This crop was distributed as follows: 

Red Raisins. — England 2,699 tons. 

North of Europe 6,488 " 

Trieste 2,260 " 

Russia and Turkey 2,995 " 

Sultanas. — England 7,945 tons. 

North of Europe 1,525 " 

Trieste 2,820 " 

Russia, etc 285 " 



26,950 tons. 



14,442 tons. 



12,575 tons. 



27,017 tons. 
The World's Raisin Production in i88p : 

Greece 125,000 tons. 

Smyrna 120,000 " 

Valencia 28,000 " 

lyipari, Calabria and Pantellaria . . 15,000 " 

California 10,000 '* 

Malaga 8,000 " 

Scattered 5,000 '* 

Chile 1,000 " 

312,000 tons. 

The above does not include dried wine grapes from Italy, California 
and Algiers, nor any raisins made in Australia (Victoria). 

Statement Showing the Quantity and Value of Currants, Figs and 
Raisins Imported and Entered for Consumption in the United States 
from 187J to i8j8 : 



Year Ending 


RAISINS. 


CURRANTS, 
Zante and all Other. 


FIGS. 


June 30. 


Quantity. 


Value. 


Quantity. 


Value. 


Quantity. 


Value. 


1873 

1874 

1875 

1876 

1877 

1878 


Pounds. 
35,271,312 
36,419,922 
30,501,316 
32,221,065 
32,419,637 
32,931,736 


Dollars. 
2,292,948 83 
2,544,605 95 

2,443.155 50 
2,425,277 14 
2,109,333 60 
1,904,866 13 


Pounds. 
14,141,797 
19,319,191 
19.334,458 
20,911,061 
17,152,664 
17,941.352 


Dollars. 
566,386 49 
752,694 00 

771,384 56 
856,425 62 
749,488 00 
776,827 00 


Pounds. 

7,995,035 
5,630,292 
4,659,860 

5,056,779 
5,889,011 

3,873.884 


Dollars. 
506,205 45 
391,300 16 
357,823 99 
361.835 53 
398,982 22 
262,428 15 



178 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 



Statement Showing the Quantity and Value of Currants^ Figs and 
Raisins Imported and Entered for Consumption in the United States^ 
with Rates of Duty, etc., from iSyp to 1888 : 



RAISINS. 



Year Skpino Juitb 30. 



Quantity. 



Valtje. 



Rate 

of 

Duty. 



Amount of 

Duty 
Collected. 



Additional 
and 
Discrim- 
inating 
Duty. 



1879 
1880 
1881 
1882 
1883 
1884 
1S85 
1886 
1887 
1888 



Pounds. 
38,523.535 
39.542,925 
39,654,755 
43.779.867 

51,487,389 
56,676,658 

39,778,695 
37,999.306 
40,660,603 
40,340,117 



Dollars. 
1,943,941 14 
2,274,763 00 
2,711,771 74 
3,260,033 74 

3,495,599 45 
3,543,916 15 
2,728,847 46 
2,782,599 76 
2,297,469 30 
2,098,503 00 



Per lb. 
2>^C. 
2^0. 
2>^C. 
2>^C. 
2>^C. 
2CtS. 
2CtS. 
2CtS. 
2CtS. 
2CtS. 



Dollars. 

963,088 42 

988,573 19 

991,368 94 

1,094,496 71 

1,287,184 77 

1,133,533 15 

795.573 90 

759,986 12 

813,212 06 

806,802 34 



Dollars. 
92 51 
48 43 
80 50 

20 70 
52 70 
247 35 
50 00 
34 00 
80 10 



CURRANTS, Zante or Other. 



Year Ending June 30. 



1879 
1880 
1881 
1882 
1883 
1884 
1885 
1886 
1887 
1888 



Quantity. 



Pounds. 
17,405,347 
18,007,492 
21,631,512 
32,592,231 

31,171,171 

32,743,712 

25,534,507 
22,623,171 

29,196,393 
30,636,424 



Value. 



Dollars. 

520,831 07 

600,603 40 

845-773 00 

1,388,886 00 

1,247,504 00 

1,220,575 16 

723,415 00 

744,784 00 

1,062,326 00 

1,176,532 76 



Rate 

of 
Duty. 



Per lb. 
ict. 
ICt. 
I ct. 

ICt. 
ICt. 
ICt. 
ICt. 
ICt. 
ICt. 
ICt. 



Amount of 

Duty 
Collected. 



Dollars. 

174,053 47 
180,074 92 
216,315 12 
325,922 31 
311,711 71 
327,437 12 
255,345 07 
226,231 71 

291,963 93 
306,364 24 



Additional 
and 
Discrim- 
inating 
Duty. 



Dollars. 



117 80 



FIGS. 



Year Ending June 30. 



1879 
1880 
18S1 
1882 
1883 
18S4 
1885 
1 886 
1887 
1888 



Quantity. 



Pounds. 
3,369,475 
6,266,413 
3,420,427 
8,874,186 

5,345.324 
7,840,634 

7,774,492 
6,988,642 
8,752,898 
9,965,584 



Dollars. 
247,075 06 
440,507 00 
379,382 55 
678.341 87 
489,108 38 
504,532 02 
516,083 63 

499.985 80 
488,632 00 
495,541 50 



Rate 

of 
Duty. 



Per lb. 
2>^C. 
2>^C. 
2>^C. 
2KC. 
2>^C. 
2CtS. 
2CtS. 
2CtS. 
2CtS. 
2CtS. 



Amount of 

Duty 
Collected. 



Dollars. 

84,236 89 
156,660 34 

85,510 72 
221,854 70 
133,633 09 
156,812 68 
155,489 84 
139 772 84 

175,057 96 
199,311 68 



Additional 
and 
Discrim- 
inating 
Duty. 



Dollars. 



6 50 

137 00 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 179 

Statement of Consumption of Currants and Raisins per Head of Total 
Population in 1884. : 

United Kingdom of Great Britain. 4.38 pounds. 
United States of North America. . 1.70 " 

Prices Ruling in the California Raisin Districts: 

It is not my intention to give here a regular prospective estimate of the 
cost of a raisin vineyard and the profits to be derived therefrom. Such 
an estimate, applicable to every case, cannot be made out ; about it not 
two raisin-growers with equal experience would agree. Below I simply 
give isolated statistics of costs of the various operations necessary in 
the raisin industry. Each one can figure for himself, and my advice is 
to add liberally to the calculated expenses, if disappointment would be 
avoided. 

As to the profits of a raisin vineyard, the reader will by this time 
understand how it might vary, how it must depend upon nice little cir- 
cumstances, never foreseen and only to be taken advantage of or coun- 
teracted by the experienced grower. The high statements which have 
been given in these pages as samples of how much might be gained 
from an acre of raisin-vines can never be counted on as regular. From 
fifty to several hundred dollars per acre may be obtained as net profit 
by care, skill and favorable circumstances, but an average of seventy- 
five dollars per acre can be considered a conservative sum, which the 
owner of a good irrigated vineyard may calculate on as a safe net profit. 
Many do not reach even that. But, even with that profit per acre, how 
many horticultural industries can be counted on to produce better 
results ? Very few, if any. For the benefit of those who desire figures 
to guide them, the following statistics are offered. They have been 
carefully compiled in company with T. C. White, one of the most 
prominent raisin-growers the State has ever had. These statistics refer 
especially to the Fresno district, but they will be found to differ but 
little from those elsewhere in this State, 

Land suitable to raisins can be had at from fifty to two hundred dol- 
lars per acre. No one not thoroughly acquainted with the require- 
ments of raisin land should attempt to rely on his own judgment alone 
in making a selection. 

Vines, already rooted, at from ten to twenty dollars per thousand 
vines. An average would be fifteen dollars. The cost of rooting vines 
is from one dollar to two dollars and fifty cents per thousand, according 
to locality and circumstances. 

Cuttings, from two to three dollars per thousand, more or less, acord- 
ing to size and quality. 

Planting rooted vines, one cent per vine. Planting cuttings, half a 
cent per cutting. 

Plowing yearly, one dollar and fifty cents per acre. 

Harrowing, fifty cents per acre. 

Leveling land for irrigation, according to the quality of the land. Lev- 
eling the land in from one-half to three-quarter acre checks, including 
small ditches, etc., can be done for from ten to fifteen dollars per acre, if 



180 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

the land is fair. Rougher land will cost twenty-five dollars or thereabouts, 
and if the land is rolling and contains hardpan the expense may reach 
from fifty to one hundred dollars per acre. The more * ' naturally ' ' level 
the land is the better suited it is to raisin- vines under irrigation. 

Irrigation and cultivation, until the vines come into bearing, includ- 
ing suckering and pruning, all in large tracts of from forty to one 
hundred acres, ten dollars per acre. If in smaller tracts the expense 
will be larger. 

Pruning when the vines are in bearing, from two to three dollars per 
acre. 

Sulphuring twice, two dollars per acre. Sulphur costs from two to 
three cents per pound. It takes about one ton to twenty-five acres and 
one man can sulphur from five to six acres a day. 

Topping, about fifty cents per acre. 

Trays, twenty-four by thirty-six inches, cost ten cents in shocks, 
nailing one cent, nails one cent, total about twelve cents per tray. 

Sweatboxes, fifty cents apiece when ready. 

Packing-boxes: Wholes of twenty pounds, in shooks, six cents, 
nailing and nails two cents, total eight cents each. Halves of ten 
pounds, in shooks, four cents, nailing and nails one and one-half cents, 
total five and one-half cents. Quarter boxes of five pounds, in shooks, 
three and one-half cents, nailing and nails one and one-half cents, total 
five cents each. 

Twenty pounds of layer raisins will contain about one-half pound 
of stems. 

Cost of curing cannot be calculated. It depends upon the manner in 
which it is done. 

Picking: One man can pick from twenty-five to fifty trays of twenty 
pounds each a day, at a cost of say from two to three cents per tray, or 
about a half a ton of grapes a day, equal to a cost per ton of two dol- 
lars and fifty cents. This places the grapes on the trays, but does not 
assort them. Bj' assorting the grapes when picking, the cost is 
increased, but better raisins and more good raisins are obtained. 

Turning: Two men can turn twenty acres of grapes a day. 

Packing lyondon Layers: One man can pack "carefully" ten 
wholes or forty trays (of five pounds each) per day. Cost about twelve 
and a half cents per box. 

Packing Dehesas : One man can pack ten quarters of five pounds 
each a day. Cost twelve and one-half cents per quarter box. This 
includes facing. 

Packing Loose : One man can pack one hundred boxes per day. 

Facing plate (T. C. White's): Large plate, size nine by eighteen 
inches, five dollars per plate. Cartoon plate, size five by ten inches, two 
dollars and fifty cents per plate. 

Manilla paper for sweatboxes, one hundred and fifty pounds per ream 
at fifteen dollars per ream, size thirty-six by forty-eight. The sheets 
to be cut in two to fit the boxes. 

Stemming : Steam stemmers can separate and assort fifty tons a day. 
Ha:Kl stemmers run by two men can separate about five tons per day. 

Papers for boxes cost, according to quality, three cents per box, more 
or less. 



THROUGH THE CALIFORNIA RAISIN DISTRICTS. 

THROUGH SAN JOAQUIN VAI,I,KY TO FRESNO. 

We are on our way up the valley. The train left San Francisco 
in the morning. We have crossed the bay and rounded the Contra 
Costa Mountains, and Mount Diablo, with its majestic twin peaks, 
lies already behind us. We have just crossed the San Joaquin 
river not far from its mouth; the west side of the valley is on our 
right; on the left looms up the Sierra Nevada, far away it is true, but 
grand and imposing, gradually decreasing, as it were, towards the 
south, finally to disappear among the clouds at the farther end of the 
valley. It is in the middle of August; the day is warm, but there has 
been a shower in the mountains, as is usual at this season of the year, 
a sprinkling of rain has purified the atmosphere in the foothills, 
which stand out clear and bright, a contrast to the dusty road in the 
center of the valley, over which the smoking train carries us at a 
rapid speed. On both sides of us stretch apparently endless plains, 
thirty miles wide, — to the Coast Range on one side, to the Sierra 
Nevada on the other, — plains dry and yellow, parched in the brilliant 
sun, shaded by no clouds, but cooled by a steady breeze from the 
northwest following us up the valley. Up, we say, but it is hardly 
any more up than down, the ascent being about one foot to the mile ; it 
is rather a journey over one of the most level plains on the continent, but 
still the popular usage insists upon saying ' ' up the valley." Acres and 
acres of already harvested grainfields are seen on both sides, crossed 
by roads at right angles; here and there are stacks of grain which 
have not yet been threshed, or heaps of straw, where the threshing 
engine has done its work; on almost every section of land we see a 
farmhouse and barn, a few gum-trees or cottonwoods, and many a 
windmill and elevated tank informs us where the farmer gets his water 
for his house and his scanty trees. All this we see under a blazing sun 
and a quivering air. 

This is the great San Joaquin valley, the fertile center of California. 
Of the much spoken of irrigation of California, we see almost nothing; 
the land is dry and thirsty, the soil is loose, and the engine forces the 
dust in a cloud before us. Nothing green is seen anywhere except a 
few scattered trees far, far apart. Here and there we pass a little 
town with wooden houses and dusty streets, with wooden churches 
whose spires do not pierce the sky. We cross many streams, several of 
which are dry, or have sluggish waters, while some wind their way 
down the valley between banks covered with willows and cotton- 
woods. Yet there is something grand in this immense stretch of 
open, level country, with its frame of snowy mountains, with its fer- 
tile fields waiting for the winter's rain or irrigating ditch to produce 
abundantly of almost anything that can be grown in any temperate 



182 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

country in the world. The numerous grain stacks speak of the fer- 
tility of the soil and of abundant harvests, while the vegetation along 
the rivers indicates that water is all that is needed to make this large 
valley like a fruitful garden. 

We have passed Lathrop and Modesto and numerous smaller stations 
between; the picture is everywhere the same. At Atwater we met the 
first signs of irrigation, and saw young vineyards and orchards on 
either side, and as we approach Merced we pass large irrigating ditches 
flowing with water, and in the distance many houses and farms. The 
country is getting greener, and the deep color of the soil is a sign that 
it is rich and fertile. At Merced there is a Yosemite air. The Urge 
El Capitan Hotel stands out like a landmark, and the garden with its 
flowers and shade trees, and the marble fountain with its rippling 
waters, speak loudly of beauty and refinement. 

Close to Merced are situated some of the new promising colonies 
which are making raisin-growing one of their specialties, and in what- 
ever direction we look we see signs of such new enterprises, all young, 
of course, as irrigation has only lately been brought in here, where no 
dense settlements could exist without it. Much of the land is yet held 
in very large tracts, but they are being rapidly subdivided and sold out 
to actual settlers as fast as there is any demand for them. To our right 
lies a splendid body of perfectly level land occupied by the Yosemite 
Colony with many settlers already on the land, whose new and cosy 
cottages mark their future homes. 

In the distance, on the slope of the low hills, stand out prominently 
a number of houses, some of them quite pretentious, white and gleam- 
ing in their new dress. This is the Rotterdam Colony, a settlement of 
Hollanders who have only lately arrived here. There is not a colony 
anywhere which promises to be more interesting, and which is likely 
to prove a greater success. The Dutch as a people had succeeded with 
colonization long before any other nation began a similar work, and, 
as immigrants to this State, they are most desirable. Industrious, 
saving, intelligent and persevering, with good land, plenty of water at 
all times of the year, and with a good location which insures health 
and comfort, there is no reason why they should not succeed. The 
colony is most beautifully situated on high sloping ground, — a veritable 
mesa land overlooking the vast Merced plains, and only four or five 
miles distant from the city. These Hollander colonists are the very 
best kind of settlers the State can get, — not the ignorant peasantry of 
Europe, but intelligent and well-educated people, which any commu- 
nity can be proud of. There is great activity in the colony just now. 
Thousands of acres are covered with magnificent grain, which, without 
any more rain, would give a profit of from twenty to twenty-five dol- 
lars per acre, and thus materially help to pay for the land. A hundred 
or more horses and mules with their drivers are plowing and harrowing 
the soil ; and such a plowing is not often seen anywhere. The plows 
are set about a feet deep, and the work is done by the canal company 
just to help the settlers along and give them a good start. What more 
can they expect? Good treatment is in Merced dealt out to everybody, 
— a good policy which should be followed in every new colony in the 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 183 

land. We stop at the newly-built house of Mr. Canne, a gentleman of 
middle age with a large family, and hearty and pleasing, as is so char- 
acteristic of the Dutch. His house is large, very comfortable and airy, 
with large verandas overlooking the country far and wide. Inside 
everything is cosy and neat, with lots of mementoes from quaint old 
Holland, with colored china on the walls and odd tables and odder 
bric-a-brac, family heirlooms from generations back. The old grand- 
ma, with her eighty-one years, has come along with the younger folks, 
happy as they, and, as they, meeting bravely and with confidence new 
times and experiences in the new country which they have chosen as 
their home. Our wishes for good luck are not needed ; it is sure to 
come when such people are settled upon such land, and when every- 
body enjoys everybody else's good-will. The land which is now being 
broken is to be planted to olives, almonds, oranges, peaches and vines, 
— a very good selection indeed, and one which cannot fail to prove 
profitable. The deep red soil on the mesa will grow almost anything, 
and with proper care and management this colony must in the near 
future become one of the most attractive and prosperous in the State. 

The Rotterdam Colony is bounded on one side by the now famous 
and often described Crocker and Huffman reservoir. Those who 
believe that a reservoir in the foothills is not the proper thing should 
come and take a look at this one, and be convinced that it is. The 
location is a most favorable one, being ninety feet above the town of 
Merced, and elevated sufficiently to irrigate the whole of the level 
surrounding district, containing two hundred and sixty thousand acres. 
The water covers now about six hundred and forty acres which were 
formerly a real and natural valley, across the mouth of which the dam 
checking the water was thrown. The average depth of water is about 
thirty feet, while in some places it is fifty odd feet deep. The statistics 
of this reservoir and dam have been given often enough, but more or 
less correctly. The dam checking the water is four thousand feet 
long, two hundred and seventy-five feet wide at the base, twenty feet 
on the top and sixty feet high in the center. It took four hundred 
mules and two hundred and fifty men two years to build it. The reser- 
voir and canal tapping Merced river cost together two million dollars 
to build, and the work was constructed in such a substantial and 
scientifically correct manner, that it will be likely to last for ages. 
There is no other irrigation system in the State that is as well planned 
and carried out. This can and must be said to the honor of the con- 
structors. The canal which taps the river is twenty-seven miles long, 
from sixty to seventy feet wide on the bottom, one hundred feet on the 
top, and has fall enough to carry four thousand cubic feet of water per 
second. 

We have already remarked that the country between the dam and 
the city of Merced is a magnificent and level body of land, all emi- 
nently suited for irrigation. From the water tower in the reservoir, we 
overlook all this land, now in its spring dress a very beautiful sight 
indeed. The vast sheet of water, like a placid lake, in which the 
Sierra Nevada reflects its snowy peaks, the prairie extending far and 
wide, divided between luxuriant grainfields and unbroken lands now 



184 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

covered with their spring carpet of flowers in the colors of the rain- 
bow, — yellow, white, blue, violet, red and shades of each, and dotted 
over with the new settlers' homes, freshly built and freshly painted, — 
what more lovely view could we wish, a sight of beauty and of plenty. 
As we drive back to town, we are more than at first impressed with the 
lay of the land. The surface is level and without hills or knolls, but 
is cut through by many natural channels or creeks from fifteen to twenty 
feet deep, insuring a natural drainage, invaluable in a country where 
irrigation is required. 

The soil in this part of Merced county appears to be made up entirely 
of alluvial deposits from the various creeks which in winter irrigate the 
plains with their natural overflow. The largest of these creeks is Bear 
creek, its deep channel resembling rather an irrigation ditch constructed 
on the latest engineering principles than a natural stream. Its banks 
are even and slanting, while its bed is deep below the surface. 

But our time to stay was short. We have left Merced and many 
smaller towns behind us, crossed many more dry streams, and passed 
the large vineyards at Minturn, where sherry and port of excellent 
quality are made. We have again crossed the main channel of the 
upper San Joaquin, not far from where it emerges from the Sierra 
Nevada, its silvery waters winding their way over the thirsty plains 
between steep and barren banks. We have crossed a few irrigating 
ditches full to overflowing with water, and see a few orchards and 
vineyards with their bright green scattered about on the yellow plains. 
There is suddenly a general stir in the cars, hats and bundles are 
taken down from the racks, most of the passengers prepare to move, 
the locomotive whistles, houses and trees are seen on both sides 
through the car windows, the train comes to a standstill, there is a 
hum of voices, a waiting crowd swarms around the cars, a throng 
of people pushes in, and another throng pushes out. We are among 
the latter, as we are now in Fresno, the largest raisin center on the 
continent. 

Fresno, as seen from the railroad station, is not as inviting as it 
might be, and the thousands of travelers who pass by on the cars, 
headed farther south, can judge but little of the town and the district 
behind it. The country is so level, that the only way to get a good 
view of the country is to ascend some elevated building, the court- 
house being the highest, and through its location the best suited 
building for the purpose. The early forenoon, before the noonday 
sun has acquired its full power, is the best time for this. Once up 
there, the view is decidedly magnificent, and more extensive than we 
had ever expected while below. Under us lies a lovely park of trees, 
— umbrella, elm, locust and fan palms, covering about four blocks. 
From it stretch the regular streets in all directions, lined by cottages 
as well as with costly dwelling-houses, shaded with stately trees of 
various kinds. The business portion of the town presents itself par- 
ticularly well, — large and costly hotels, with comforts that the tired 
travelers enjoy so much, imposing bank blocks of brick and stone, 
with towers and ornamental roofs, solid structures with continuous 
lines of stores, etc., mark this part of town. For a mile in every 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 185 

direction tlie town stretches out, the center thickly built, the outskirts 
with sparsely scattered houses. Adjoining these the country begins, — 
vineyards as far as we can trace, groups of houses shaded by trees in 
different tints of green, while broken rows of endless poplars traverse 
the verdant plains and lose themselves in the distant horizon. The 
Sierra Nevada, with their snowclad summits, and the Coast Range in 
the west, cloudy and less distinct, form the frame for two sides of this 
attractive picture, while to the north and the south the open horizon, 
where sky and plains meet, limits the extensive view. 

The street-car lines of Fresno do not run very far out in the country, 
and to see the latter we must procure a team. The colonies or settle- 
ments of small farms immediately join the town limits; we are thus 
with one step out in the country. On either side we see continuous 
rows of vineyards, — the leaves green and brilliant, the vines planted 
in squares and pruned low, with the branches trailing on the ground. 
To begin with, the houses stand closely, almost as in a village. As 
we get farther out there is a house on every twenty-acre farm, or every 
one-eighth of a mile. The cottages are neat and tasty, surrounded 
by shade trees, while rose-trees and shrubbery adorn the yard, and 
climbers shelter the verandas from the sun. At every step, almost, 
we pass teams going in various directions, — teams loaded with raisin 
boxes, teams with raisin trays, teams crowded with raisin pickers hur- 
rying out to the vineyards, teams driven by raisin-growers or colonists 
generally, who rush to and from town to transact business connected 
with their one great industry. Everywhere is bustle and life; every 
one is in a hurry, as the grape-picking has begun, and the weather is 
favorable; no one has any time to lose. Some of the avenues are lined 
with elm-trees, others with fig-trees, with their luscious, drooping fruit, 
others again are bordered with evergreen and towering gums, with 
weeping branches and silvery bark. Every acre is carefully cultivated; 
there is room for only a few weeds. As far as we drive the same scene 
is everywhere, a scene like that in the outskirts of a populous city, 
where villas and pleasure grounds alternate with the cultivated acres, 
here those of the raisin-grower, and where every foot of ground is 
guarded with zealous care and made to produce to its utmost capacity. 
It is a pretty sight, a sight of thrift and intelligence, of enterprise and 
of success, of wealth and of refinement, found nowhere else outside 
of the fruit-growing and raisin-producing districts of California. 

The raisin harvest has just begun ; the vineyards are full of workers, 
grape-pickers are stooping by every vine, and are arranging the grapes 
on small square or oblong trays, large enough to be easily handled ; 
teams with trucks are passing between the vines distributing the trays 
or piling them up in small, square stacks at every row. Some trays 
with their amber grapes lie flat on the ground in long continuous rows 
between the vines, others again are slightly raised so as to catch as 
much of the sun as possible. In some vineyards the laborers are turn- 
ing the partially cured and dried raisins by placing one tray on top of 
another, and then turning them quickly over. In other places, again, 
the trays with the raisins already cured are stacked in low piles, so as 
to exclude the sun and air, and at other stacks a couple of men at each 



186 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

are busy assorting the grapes, and placing the various grades in dif- 
ferent sweatboxes, large enough to hold one hundred pounds each. 
In every vineyard, large and small, we find the hands at work, and 
every one able and willing to do a day's work is engaged to harvest 
the large crop. The most of the pickers are Chinese, at least in 
the larger vineyards, while in the smaller vineyards, where large gangs 
of men are not absolutely necessary, white men and boys are generally 
employed. The fame of the raisin section and the harvest has spread 
far and wide, and at picking time laborers gather from all parts of the 
State to take part in the work, and find remunerative wages at from 
$1.25 to 1 1. 50 per day. The country now swarms with pickers of all 
nationalities, — Germans, Armenians, Chinese, Americans, Scandina- 
vians, etc., and as the schools have closed in order to allow the children 
to take part in the work, boys of all sizes are frequently seen kneeling 
at the vines. 

The crop this year is very heavy, many vines yielding two trays or 
even three, containing twenty pounds each, and, as the trays are gen- 
erally placed in alternate rows between the vines, we see, as we pass, 
continuous lines of them filled with grapes in various stages of curing, 
from the green to the amber-colored and the dark of the fully-cured 
raisin. The aroma from the drying berries is noticeable, and the 
breeze is laden with the spicy and pronounced odor of the Muscatel 
raisins. 

The average size of a colony lot is twenty acres. Many settlers own 
two or three lots, a few owning four or five. But it must not be 
understood that the whole of these lots are planted to raisin grapes. 
While most of the larger tracts are almost exclusively planted to raisin 
grapes, the smaller farms of twenty acres contain as a rule only a few 
acres of vines, the balance being occupied by alfalfa, berries, garden, 
fruit trees, and yard for houses and barns. From three to fifteen acres 
of raisin-vines are found on every twenty-acre farm ; none is without 
its patch of raisin- vines. We step off and inspect many of the places, 
large as well as small. Magnificent vineyards are owned by T. C. 
White, one of the oldest and most successful vineyardists, and by 
other parties, only second in importance to his. The vineyard of the 
late Miss Austin is yet in its prime, the evergreen trees and hedges being 
as inviting as in days of old. New vineyards which have not yet come 
into bearing are seen on every side, while in places whole orchards or 
single rows of trees have yielded to the axe to be replaced by the bet- 
ter-paying raisin-vines. 

Some of the best-paying and largest vineyards are found east of 
Fresno City. From the very outskirts of the city we pass through 
raisin vineyards, very few fields being planted with anything else. 
Near the town some vineyards have given place to town lots, and 
whole villages are growing up in the old vineyards. We pass by 
the large vineyard of Frank Ball, containing about 120 acres, all in 
vines except a small reserve for house, barn and alfalfa field. Adjoining 
on the same road is the Bretzner vineyard of forty odd acres, the vines 
loaded with grapes. We turn to the left and, passing the vineyards of 
Merriam and Reed, see on our left the magtdficent Cory vineyard of 



THK RAISIN INDUSTRY. 187 

eighty acres, bordered by a wonderfully beautiful row of umbrella 
trees, with crowns as even as veritable gigantic umbrellas, and through 
the foliage of which not a ray of light can penetrate, A little farther 
on, also to the left, is the Gordon vineyard, lined by fan palms and 
fig trees. A large sign across the main road announces that we now 
enter the Butler vineyard, the largest and most famous vineyard in the 
State, with its six hundred acres nearly all in vines, — the largest vine- 
yard in one body and owned by one man in the world. Magnificent 
avenues of poplars, magnolias and fan palms stretch in various direc- 
tions leading to the outbuildings, of which the packing and drying 
houses appear most prominently. Mr. Butler's home is one of the 
most attractive, shaded by umbrella trees and majestic fan palms, and 
surrounded by flowers and evergreens. From his vineyard alone over 
five hundred carloads of raisins have been shipped, the yearly product 
being over one hundred thousand boxes of raisins, — a thousand tons. 
The vineyard now swarms with laborers ; the teams wait in long lines 
to load the ready raisin-boxes, while the spaces between the vines, as 
far as we can see, are almost covered with continuous rows of trays, all 
loaded with Muscat grapes in all stages of drying. 

We travel constantly eastward ; on both sides are raisin vineyards, 
large and small. The four hundred acres owned by the Fresno Vine- 
yard Company are devoted to wine grapes, and large wineries and cel- 
lars built of adobe show the wealth and extensive business of the place. 
No vacant land anywhere, nothing but vineyards, the only breaks 
being groves of trees shading the homes, wine cellars or packing- 
houses of the proprietor. Farther to the north lies in an unbroken 
row the well-known Eisen vineyard, where the first raisins were made 
in this district, but where now principally wine is produced ; the Nevada 
and Temperance Colonies, devoted mostly to raisins ; the Pew, the 
Kennedy, the Forsyth, Woodworth's, Duncan's, Goodman's and Back- 
man's raisin vineyards, all splendidly cared for and lined by fig trees. 
Of these the Forsyth vineyard deserves more than a passing notice, as 
it is more inviting to an hour's rest than any other. Containing i6o 
acres, nearly all in vines, it is one of the best properties of the county. 
The place shows an uncommon taste and refinement, and is beautified 
by avenues of poplars and magnolias, by groves of acacia and um- 
brella trees, by palms and flowers, and by roses and climbing plants. 
A pond with its lilies, overhung by weeping willows and shaded by 
stately elms, is an unusual sight even in this county of abundant irri- 
gation. The packing-houses and dryer all display a taste and practi- 
cal arrangement hardly seen elsewhere. A climb to the top of the 
tank-house is well worth the trouble. The view becomes wonderfully 
enlarged ; we overlook the level plains, all in vines, with houses and 
groves scattered about like islands in a sea, — no wild, unbroken 
country anywhere. In the distance is Fresno City, to the north the 
view is hemmed in by new vineyards and colonies, — a mass of trees and 
vines in straight and regular rows. The courteous owner conducts 
us through his packing-house and shows us how the bunches are 
placed in layers and carefully made to fit every corner in the box, 
how the boxes are covered with papers and artistic labels and finally 



188 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

made ready for the market. As we pass out we get a glimpse of the 
equalizing room, crowded to the ceiling with sweatboxes, in which the 
raisins assume an even and uniform moisture. And what luscious 
bunches they are, large, sweet, thin skinned and highly flavored. 
Malaga produces nothing better, and much not as good. And, when 
we are all through tasting and admiring, we are invited into the cosy 
and artistically furnished dwelling, where in the cool shade the lunch 
and the rest are as welcome and interesting as the vineyards and pack- 
ing-houses outside. 

As we turn again towards town, we pass the well-kept Goodman 
vineyard, after which we enter the large Barton vineyard, now partly 
owned by an English syndicate. The old 640 acres are nearly all in 
wine grapes, while several hundred acres of young raisin grapes have 
lately been added. One of the most extensive wine cellars in the State 
is found here, all kept in splendid shape, — ^hardly a speck of dirt, 
not a foot of waste land seen anywhere. The mansion is stately, 
situated on a small hill surrounded by fine groves of gum-trees, ever- 
green hedges and ornamental grounds. Should we care to go farther 
east, we might visit the Eisen vineyard, where the first Muscats were 
planted in the county. The famous avenue is half a mile long, and one 
of the most beautiful in the State, lined on both sides with blooming and 
beautiful oleanders alternating with poplars over a hundred feet high. 
We might also visit the I^ocan vineyard and orchard, and admire the 
orange-trees, which speak of what the country can produce in this 
line. But the time is too short; we might travel a week over this 
level but beautiful country, and every day, every minute, see some- 
thing new and interesting among all these vineyards, with their pack- 
ing-houses, and raisins exposed on trays to dry. 

When we return to town, a visit to the packing-houses is one of the 
most interesting that can be made. Of these packing establishments 
Fresno has four or five, besides several in the colonies or in the larger 
vineyards. Three of these packing-houses are the largest in the 
State. The building of each one of them, though large, is full and 
overcrowded. Women at long tables pack the raisins in boxes, at 
other tables men weigh and assort raisins and take them out of the 
large sweatboxes in which they left the field. At some tables fancy 
packing is done, and women "face" the boxes by placing large 
selected raisins in rows on the top layers. At another table the 
raisin-boxes are covered with fine colored labels, then nailed and made 
ready for shipment. Some four hundred men and women are busy 
with this work under one roof, all earning wages of from one to two 
dollars a day each. We catch a glimpse of the equalizing room, where 
fifty tons of raisins are stored at one time for a week or more in order 
to become of even moisture, the floor being sometimes sprinkled with 
water to make the air sufiiciently moist. As we go out we see the 
raisin-boxes already packed being loaded on cars and shipped east 
by the train-load, from four to six such raisin trains leaving every 
week, each train of from ten to twenty cars. On the other side of 
the packing-house is a continuous row of teams from the country, all 
loaded with raisins, brought by the country growers to the packers in 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 189 

town. It takes a gang of men to receive, weigh and unload them. In 
another department we see the large stemmer and grader, which runs 
by steam, and stems and assorts from thirty to forty tons per day, the 
clean and uniform raisins running out in a continuous stream, each 
grade in separate boxes. There is a restless activity on every side. 
The large raisin crop this year is very large; it must be handled in a 
few months, and every grower and packer is pushing the work to his 
utmost ability. 

When we consider that most of the crop, which this year will reach 
five hundred thousand boxes, comes from the country immediately 
surrounding Fresno City, and that the San Joaquin valley is 250 miles 
long by 75 miles wide, almost all the land capable of being highly 
cultivated and of producing abundant crops of one thing or another, 
then alone can we realize what the future has in store for this wonder- 
ful valley, an agricultural empire in the very center of California. 

FROM I.OS ANGEI.es TO SANTA ANA. 

We are fairly out of lyos Angeles when the character of the scenery 
changes. The railroad here runs through one of the most fertile 
counties in the State, — the rich bottom lands being formed by the 
deposits of ages from the overflow of rivers and creeks from the Sierra 
Madre range. Not an acre of waste land is to be seen anywhere. 
Everything is clothed in the softest green, and only in the far distance 
are seen the hills and higher mountains of a brownish violet color, 
with the boldest outlines against the sky. A more diversified farming 
district is seldom seen. Orchards of prunes, walnuts, apples and figs 
are met with on either side of the track, here and there expansive 
vineyards with their characteristic green, or groves of straight and 
stately gums, like immense square blocks of verdure, planted all along 
from the nearest fields to the far distant hills. We pass in succession 
Ballona, Florence, Downey and Norwalk. The country around the 
two latter places seems especially attractive,— orchards as far as we can 
see, vineyards and native pastures. We pass villages and farmhouses, 
here and there a more pretentious villa, and, in some spots more lovely 
than the surrounding, many a mansion has been erected with luxury 
and taste. 

We are soon in Orange county, and the scene changes some, the soil 
being, if possible, more fertile. We pass large orange groves of the 
deepest green, and immense fields of com, squashes, pumpkins, pea- 
nuts, beans, and here and there walnut groves and plantations of 
young fig trees. Anaheim, Orange and Santa Ana come in quick suc- 
cession; we are in the center of a raisin district of the very greatest 
interest. We can hardly realize the change. Not having been here 
since the boom, everything seems almost new. Santa Ana has grown to 
be the queen of the valley, and is undoubtedly, together with its two 
sister cities, Orange and Tustin, one of the most prosperous as well as 
lovely places to be found in the beautiful South. As we board the 
street car and ride up town from the depot, we realize the change even 
more. On every side are signs of wealth and refinement, of new ideas 



190 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. . 

and new capital, both mostly imported from the East. Broad avenues 
one hundred feet wide, on either side, lined with trees of various 
kinds, cultivated fields immediately beyond, which, with cottages, vil- 
las and churches, all speak of a prosperous and intelligent population. 

Santa Ana has her share of these stately structures. The Brunswick 
is as fine and substantial a building as any one could wish, — lofty and 
airy and of imposing architecture, large rooms and spacious halls. The 
boom that has been so much misjudged has done much more than set- 
tle up the country and bring capital. It has left behind substantial 
improvements and a taste for architecture, the arts and sciences, which 
can but be of permanent value to the country. It brought the country 
at one bound from its former frontier life and characteristics to a high 
degree of civilization and refinement. It brought capital, soil, climate 
and energy together in a way that is hardly found anywhere else out 
of our State. The boom is over, but the benefits of the boom are yet 
here, and are permanent. 

Santa Ana, Orange and Tustin are like three precious stones in a 
ring of verdure. Only a few miles apart, they are like the villas on the 
outskirts of a central imaginary city, from which the wealthy and poor 
likewise fled to a more retired country life, to enjoy both seclusion and 
society, both the pleasures of country life and the advantages of an 
active city, where every luxury and necessity can be found at the door 
of every home. 

Santa Ana has a fine, large, central business street, with new and 
costly brick blocks containing stores of every description. In this cli- 
mate, however, we can see no necessity for ice, and the manufacturer 
and mixer of cool drinks can but find his business unprofitable. Up 
and down this street a line of cars runs all day long at fixed hours, 
connecting with other lines in Tustin and Orange. A trip or two on 
any of the lines is one of real pleasure. 

Tustin is only two or three miles away, nearer the hills. The car, 
an open one with many seats, winds its way under shady lanes on 
either side, bordered by large and graceful pepper trees covered with 
spicy and fragrant blossoms. Here and there we see alongside the 
pavement an enormous sycamore tree, a monument of olden days and 
the native vegetation of the country. On both sides of the avenue are 
sidewalks of cement, and they who prefer walking can do so for miles 
under the shady trees without getting dusty or becoming heated by the 
sun. These sidewalks are marvels of beauty and comfort. On one 
side are old and graceful trees with drooping limbs, on the other are 
well-kept cypress hedges trimmed square and even, or long natural 
barriers of ever-blooming geraniums in numerous varieties, of every 
favorite shade of color from crimson to palest pink. Over the hedges 
we look into blue-grass lawns, green and well kept and exceed- 
ingly attractive. Suddenly we are in the middle of Tustin City. A 
beautiful, even magnificent bank building on one corner, a store on the 
opposite, two or three smaller shops and the inevitable splendid and 
elaborate hotel, and the town is fully described. Immediately adjoin- 
ing are the beautiful and evergreen lawns and trees, — the city and 
country actually combihed. 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 191 

A trip to Orange reveals the very same features, only we pass through 
a more fertile country, with vineyards and orchards on every side, 
orange groves of various ages, walnut orchards, fields of tall corn, 
peanuts, beans and melons. Between all wind the shaded avenues 
with pepper and gum, cypress, pine or yellow flowering grevillea. 
The soil is everywhere of the richest kind, of a color between ashy 
green and chocolate. Nowhere have we seen such magnificent Indian 
corn, — whole fields where the stalks are from twelve to sixteen feet 
high. Orange is a more pretentious town than Tustin, but hardly any 
more beautiful, and far less secluded and quiet. There are two 
large and fine hotels, the one of briok being in town, while the 
other, the family hotel, lies in the suburbs in bowers of evergreen trees 
and gardens. In the middle of the town there is a plaza with a foun- 
tain and an exquisite little garden well planned and better kept. The 
lawns are like the softest velvet, and are bordered with blue and green 
flowers, with beds of sweetest mignonette, while bananas and palms 
spread their stately foliage in the center. 

The climate of this part of Southern California is excellent. The 
thermometer stands at midday at eighty in the shade; in the evening 
there is always a breeze. Many of those I meet complain as usual, 
and greet me with the inevitable, " How warm it is to-day," and our 
as inevitable answer is, that we cannot feel it, and that it just seems 
delightful to us. People here observe and feel the changes of temper- 
ature much more than we do farther north. "With us they share the 
habit of complaining even if there is nothing to complain of. 

The vineyards of Santa Ana have suffered much from a vine disease 
which may be compared with consumption or the Oriental plague in 
man. But every one thinks here that the pest will run its course and 
become harmless, and even now some of the vineyards are being 
replanted with fresh vines. The oranges do eminently well, but 
they must be sprayed and constant watch kept for the red scale 
imported here from Australia by an enterprising nurseryman. The 
plantations of walnuts are being rapidly extended, and nurseries of 
young walnut trees just appearing above the ground are seen in 
many places, the plants probably amounting to millions. The walnut 
generally planted is the seedling soft-shell and the common Santa Ana 
walnut, than which there is none choicer and more valued on the coast. 
Prunes are also a favorite crop, and pay well if not allowed to over- 
bear, in which case the succeeding crop will be small. The same may 
be said of the apricot. These trees are here fine and healthy, and of a 
deeper and finer green than is seen almost anywhere else; but last year 
the trees bore too much, and this year the crop is by far not what it 
should be. 

The resources of this country are such that the partial failure of a 
single crop will cause no serious injury. New resources are developed 
every day; there are few plants that do not thrive here. In the gar- 
dens as well as in the fields we see the tender semi-tropical plants, 
which cannot stand any frost, growing close to varieties from the 
North. Bananas, date palms, walnuts and oranges grow in the same 
field with peaches, apples and prunes. Pepper and camphor trees and 



192 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

the tender grevillea are on one side of the avenue, while on the other 
side we may find elm, eucalyptus or even the beautiful umbrella. 

Irrigation is practiced on every farm. Fifteen thousand acres are 
covered by water stock, but not all irrigated yet. Just now the orange 
groves are irrigated, and I observe their methods. The land is always 
leveled before anything is planted, as there is too little water here to 
waste any on unlevel land. One way to irrigate an orchard is to plow 
furrows in between the rows of trees, and then let the water run in 
them. Another way is to check the whole orchard with small levees, 
inclosing thus a little square around every tree, and the square check 
of one tree meeting the same of the adjoining tree. This is actually 
flooding the land. Deciduous trees and vines grow without irrigation, 
but to get a good crop irrigation is necessary. The large, dry and 
rocky creek beds speak of the water that is wasted in winter time in 
flowing to the sea. Practically nothing of it is then saved. Irriga- 
tion districts under the Wright law are formed and forming, and every- 
body seems hopeful that in course of time there will be water enough 
to irrigate all the land that is good enough to be irrigated. Some of 
the finest ranches in the State lie right at the feet of Santa Ana. The 
San Joaquin ranch contains one hundred thousand acres, I am told, and 
it is not yet cut up, and thus some of the best land around Santa Ana 
is yet only used as pasture. The owners failed to sell in the time of the 
boom and must now wait until the land that is already covered with 
ditches will be fully settled before they can sell, but the time, we pre- 
dict, is not very far off". 

SANTA ANA TO SAN DIEGO. 

A railroad trip from Santa Ana to San Diego offers many points 
of interest. It carries us through both the most highly cultivated 
and through the absolutely vacant, not to say barren, lands. We- 
leave the orange grove and walnut plantations of Santa Ana, and are 
carried almost immediately past the lovely and shaded Tustin, where 
pepper groves and lime hedges, gardens and splendid villas, combine 
nature with art, taste and enterprise to create a veritable oasis for those 
favored ones who can remain there. We rush for a few minutes through 
these highly cultivated lands, and suddenly find ourselves out on a 
wide, open plain, comprising about eighty thousand acres, without a 
house to be seen anywhere, with no orchards, no vineyards, no signs 
of civilized life. And still the soil is the richest, the native vegetation 
of grasses the most luxuriant. The soil is apparently subirrigated, 
and could grow almost anything the farmer might plant there. Along 
the horizon, stretching from the mountains way down on the plains 
like an immense plumed serpent in its wavy and coiling track, is seen 
a continuous band of sycamore trees, outlining the bed of a stream. It 
is like stepping out of one room into another. What can be the reason 
of the sudden change ? This vast body of land, containing over 
126,000 acres, is an old Mexican grant, the remnant of one of those 
Mexican cancers, which to such an extent has retarded the develop- 
ment of California. Sure enough, we see wire fences everywhere, 



THK RAISIN INDUSTRY. 193 

and cattle with spreading horns and sheep without number. But we 
see no sign of the cultivator, no horses, no signs of progress. The 
owner held onto the land, probably expecting it to bring a price many- 
times the sum it was worth. He died, and so died the boom, and now 
the land is under administration. When the time comes that this 
large San Joaquin grant can be sold to farmers in small tracts, it will 
very greatly increase the cuitivable area of Orange county. 

But we pass on, leaving the open country; we are soon in among 
the rolling lands, among foothills not unlike those of the Sierra Ne- 
vada in the San Joaquin valley. To the left are the San Bernardino 
Mountains, here and there a peak of boldest outline, and streams and 
canons winding their way to the sea. At Kl Toro a number of passen- 
gers got off to take the stage to Laguna, a seaside hotel, where the 
farmers and business men of every color, from the heated interior val- 
leys, delight to spend a day in fishing, hunting for abalones, or in 
watching the breakers roll against the sandy beach. A little farther 
on we stop at El Capistrano, or rather at San Juan Capistrano, the old 
ruined mission, situated in the most beautiful little valley, with its 
winding and .sycamore shaded creek. The mission must have been 
one of the very largest in the State. The ruins are yet very extensive, 
consisting of long and regular adobe walls, and one-half of a yet mag- 
nificent looking church, in the regular Spanish style of architecture. 
A rather large size town of Mexican houses, with a Mexican popula- 
tion, and venerable fig trees, tall and wavy palm trees, and large but 
unkempt gardens, give the place a rather more important look than it 
perhaps deserves. There is but little sign that the boom was ever here. 
Still the valley is so beautiful and evidently so fertile, that it needs 
only work and taste to make it equal to the very best. We see yet 
the old mission pear trees, large and untrimmed, not unlike our droop- 
ing oaks, loaded with pears to such an extent that there appears 
hardly room for a blackbird to get through. The mission grapevines 
arc all dead. Gigantic vines, which covered trellises and arbors, and 
which perhaps bore tons of grapes, with trunks as heavy as the body 
of a boy, are there yet, but without leaves and young shoots ; they 
are dead, having surrendered to the vine pest of the country. 

After leaving Capistrano we follow the little creek to the sea. The 
valley is from one-half to one mile wide. Here and there are flourish- 
ing little vineyards, but mostly pastures and cornfields or patches of 
beans. At last we reach the sea, the Pacific, calm and blue, with 
breakers lashing the shore. To the right we leave the rocky promon- 
tory of the Capistrano Mountains, and for an hour or more run on the 
very beach. In stormy weather the spray of the breakers must wet the 
cars, which run only a stone's throw from the water's edge. This part 
of the route is the most interesting and the most refreshing to one 
coming from the interior plains. We are now in San Diego county. 
The shore is abrupt and bluffy, the hills bordering on the sea. 

At Oceanside we meet the first of the boom towns, one of those that 
sprang up for pleasure and profit, towns of magnificent villas, broad 
streets and avenues, lined with infant blue gums, with rows and hedges 
of the ever-bright geraniums, and with large and splendid-looking 



194 THE RALSIN INDUSTRY. 

hotels, with airy balconies, verandas and lookout towers, swept by the 
fresh breezes of the sea. The vicinity of every such station is heralded 
by the characteristic white stakes that mark the town lots, and by 
rows of small, intensely blue, gums ; by a sprinkling of cottages, 
small and large, perhaps a mile or two before the whistle of the steam- 
engine brings us to a standstill. The first things that meet our eye at 
every station are large and splendid lawns, young plantations of palm 
trees and other plants characteristic of the Southern coast climate, 
flowers of brightest hue, all started by the enterprising immigrants 
who came here to buy climate, sun and air, and to enjoy the breakers 
and the ocean every day in the year. After Oceanside, we touch at 
Carlsbad and Del Mar, both seaside resorts with magnificent villas 
costing from twenty to forty thousand dollars each, and with fine but 
young plantations and gardens. I was especially charmed with Del 
Mar, with its large, tasteful hotel on the bluff, and quite a large col- 
ony of villas and mansions in various sizes and styles close around, — a 
bright and charming picture, a place where a traveler feels at home at 
once, where he would like to pass the balance of all the days he can 
spare from business and toil. 

The scene changes again as the cars carry us through the foothills, 
along the bed of creeks, or across lagoons connected with the sea, or 
over gaping chasms. We look down deep into the valleys below, 
where shadj'- sycamores and white cottages mark the farmers' homes, 
and where vine-clad hills offset the native brown of the country. I 
am surprised to see how the grapevines thrive so luxuriantly so very 
close to the shore. In some places there are fine and thrifty vines within 
a stone's throw of the breakers, only protected by a slight undulation 
in the ground from the most direct wind. Of course, grapes on those 
vines cannot be expected to be very sweet ; it is wonderful enough that 
they are there at all. 

The water supply of this part of San Diego county has been very 
much underrated. The railroad crosses perhaps a dozen different 
creeks, all showing living water, and which are far from being entirely 
dried up. With a Supreme Court more enlightened, and with proper 
legislation as to the needs of the country, San Diego county may yet 
be able to store water enough to irrigate very large areas of land, where 
colonies of thrifty farmers may create and maintain prosperous 
orchards and vineyards as a support and backbone to the many 
pleasure resorts. 

But we are out of the hills. Smiling and glistening in the evening 
sun lies San Diego Bay, with the elevated Point lyOma, the ever-pres- 
ent breakers on the bar, and away out on the low peninsula the 
gigantic and turreted pile of the Hotel del Coronado, to say nothing of 
San Diego itself, with its miles of marked town lots and villas. But I 
shall not endeavor to describe this town and its bay and climate. The 
latter may possibly not be excelled anywhere ; the former lacks a 
most essential thing, — an abundance of trees and vegetation. Still, 
with the water that has lately been brought here the trees and flowers 
will come soon enough we hope, when green lawns, bananas and 
palms will be ready to tell the tale, and young plantations will be 



THK RAISIN INDUSTRY. 195 

seen on the hills and around roadway homes. But I forget I am 
bound for El Cajon and its raisin vineyards, and must catch the train. 

Elv CAJON. 

The country lying between San Diego and El Cajon does not at 
this time of the year present many attractive features. The little 
train, consisting of a locomotive, tender and a passenger car, wriggles 
itself between brown, rolling hills, over small caiions, dry and sandy, 
without any other vegetation than grass, and here and there a few 
evergreen shrubs. Close to San Diego we pass along the Chollas val- 
ley and creek, where an attempt has been made at colonization, as 
we understand it in the San Joaquin valley. The land is divided 
up in ten and twenty-acre tracts and dotted over with small and un- 
pretentious cottages, as well as with fine and expensive mansions. 
Young orchards of pears, olives, prunes, oranges and figs are seen 
wedged in between vacant and unbroken land. In the river bottom 
are Chinese gardens, with windmills, and patches of cabbage, corn 
and small truck. Much of this land is irrigated with water from the 
Sweetwater dam, some twelve miles away on the Sweetwater river. 
On the bottom land there are a few Muscat vineyards, for the supply 
of the San Diego market. I noticed the grapes there. They were 
of the Muscat of Alexandria variety, very large and fine both as to 
bunch and berry, and very sweet. I have seen no finer Alexandrias 
anywhere. 

But we have hardly time to observe this cultivated spot before we 
are out again among the rolling hills. The engine pants heavily, and 
we are constantly ascending. The same low hills everywhere, — no 
settlers, no gardens, no plantations of any kind. The soil is brown 
adobe mixed with gravel and small boulders; in fact there is nothing 
to see and admire. For twenty miles there are two or three small 
stations, but there were no station houses to be seen nor any settle- 
ments around. The railroad is apparently made to tap a better coun- 
try in the interior. But even in this uninhabited country the boom 
started to penetrate in earnest. Large signs announcing the sale of 
town lots, wide streets once plowed up across each other at right 
angles, square blocks which are plowed around or otherwise mapped 
out, here and there a white post with a number and a name, and 
we have a good idea of a town where the lots sold for $250 apiece or 
more. 

All at once the engine whistles, the area widens and we see in front 
of us a large, flat valley, apparently almost circular, from four to five 
miles across, bounded by lower and higher hills, behind which a few 
higher peaks look down gray and solemn. This is El Cajon. We 
step out on the platform of the station, and the view is fine. The 
valley lies below us, the bottom is apparently flat, but in reality 
slightly undulating and somewhat sloping towards the center. Rows 
of vines begin at the station, and from here vineyards stretch in all 
directions for miles and miles, sometimes in large blocks of regular 
shape, then again in irregular patches among otherwise cultivated 



196 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

lands half way up on the lower hills. Dotted all over the valley are 
farmhouses in all styles, elegant and tasty or plain and simple, enough 
only to keep out the rain and the sun. Around every such cluster of 
buildings there is a little plantation of eucalyptus and cypress, and a 
few ornamental plants. Here and there at long intervals is seen a row 
of gums, black and somber, as if they were on duty as shields from 
wind and fog. We are soon in the bus on the way to town. The 
roads are straight and well kept, bordered with young eucalyptus and 
cypress, and with vineyards on both sides with the rows of vines 
remarkably distinct; we can follow each one of them distinctly for sev- 
eral miles over the undulating ground until they end on the steeper 
slopes of the hills, or run into the little caiions bordering the valley. 
El Cajon has no pretentions to being a town; it is an unassuming and 
quiet little village, whose inhabitants, when they speak of "town," 
always mean San Diego, twenty miles away. El Cajon has a dozen 
houses, all told, one of each kind of the most necessary stores and 
shops, but Wells, Fargo & Co. have not yet discovered this quiet 
place. Nevertheless, it has two hotels, one small and unassuming, 
which runs a bus to the station, and where everybody seems to meet; 
the other, large and pretentious, both as to bay-windows and name, — 
Corona del Cajon, but apparently void of much internal life. The 
railroad to El Cajon was finished only some eight months ago. If it 
had been running three years ago during the Southern boom, the 
valley would perhaps to-day be rivaling Pasadena and Riverside in 
thrifty farms and residences. 

El Cajon is the most important raisin-producing district in San Diego 
county, and so exclusively and to such an extent have the raisin 
grapes been planted here that we hardly see anything else. Vine- 
yards as far as we can see in all directions; vineyards in the rolling 
bottom of the valley; vineyards also on the steeper slopes of the 
hills; nothing else than Muscats of Alexandria for business, and only 
a few other vines around the cottages for home use. A drive through 
the valley brings us in close contact with what we saw from the 
more elevated station. One vineyard joins the other, with only a 
road between, and there are no rows of poplars and only very rarely 
a row of eucalyptus or cypress. The view is open on every side, and 
from every point we can see over the valley and the low hills surround- 
ing it. The vines have at this time of the year left off growing and 
have assumed a dark green color, not relieved by any young and more 
vividly colored shoots. The grapes hang ripe under the branches, 
and the trays are in many places distributed in piles over the field. 
There are two packing-houses in the valley; the one now under way 
is 40 by 130 feet, being built of redwood, and apparently most care- 
fully put up. I see no sign of irrigation anywhere, and every one 
tells me that it is not required. But I cannot help thinking that a 
little water judiciously used would have kept the vines growing much 
longer, and would have naturally increased the crop, which now only 
averages two and one-half tons of green grapes per acre. There are 
many very beautiful mansions in the valley, surrounded by very 
praiseworthy attempts at landscape gardening, but the absence of 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 197 

water for irrigation makes itself felt everywhere, both in regard to the 
size of the plants and their color. Water can be had in abundance at 
a depth of from only twelve to eighteen feet, and windmills and reser- 
voirs would do much towards a substitute for ditches. As we drive 
through the valley and up the divide between El Cajon and the Sweet- 
water valley, the view is very attractive indeed, — on one side the many 
well-kept vineyards of El Cajon, on the other, way below us, the narrow 
and winding valley of the Sweetwater. 

The Sweetwater valley, or rather continuation of valleys, is much 
smaller than El Cajon, perhaps only a quarter or half mile wide, but 
it ii more favorable to raisins, grapes or vegetation of any kind. Olive 
orchards of good size trees, vineyards with large and yet growing vines, 
cornfields and pastures, and the winding and shaded little creek in the 
center of the valley, give the latter a freshness and beauty not sur- 
passed anywhere. 

On our way on the railroad as well as through El Cajon valley, we 
have frequently passed alongside of or under the now famous Cuya- 
maca flume, carrying water to San Diego and Coronado. This flume 
is a fine structure, running sometimes in the ground, sometimes again 
on elevated trestle-work over the ravines, or spanning the gaps 
between lofty hills. The whole length of the flume is thirty-six 
miles, and the cost of construction was $112,000. Its size is five feet, 
ten inches wide, and sixteen inches deep, but by an addition of two 
more boards the depth of the water can be increased to three feet, ten 
inches, — a large body of water for this country, where water is com- 
paratively scarce. The flume heads in a magnificent dam at the head 
of San Diego river, and it would sufiice to irrigate quite a large stretch 
of country if the people were only willing to use the water. But the 
farmers here have been so repeatedly told that the land absolutely 
needs no irrigation, and indeed would be ruined by the same, that 
the most of them now fully believe this to be the case. The water 
i3 therefore not diverted anywhere along the route of the flume, and 
even in El Cajon and other places, where the crop of almost every 
kind of fruit would be doubled by judicious irrigation, no effort to use 
the same is made. I could find no one who irrigated, and as a con- 
sequence the company that owns the flume have not yet put in the 
extra boards that would more than double the carrying capacity of the 
flume. 

One of the most interesting places in San Diego county is the famous 
Sweetwater dam. It takes only tw^o and one-half hours to visit it and 
return, and a trip to it will repay the trouble. We start out southeast 
and cross to National City, only a few miles from San Diego, and 
really a suburb of that town. National City is decidedly new, an 
attempt at something grand, which it will take sometime to finish. 
The most interesting thing there, in a horticultural sense, is the 
olive o'-chards of Kimball Brothers. They are scattered in two or 
three pl..ces, and comprise about fifty acres altogether. The trees are 
ai; large as good size apple trees, bushy and silvery, and are heavily 
laden with fruit. The land around each tree was checked up, each 
tree having a little square for itself, and a Chinaman with a hoe was 



198 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

busy irrigating. In one corner of the orchard was a large circular 
reservoir five or six feet high, and perhaps twenty feet across, to 
facilitate the irrigation. The train starts from here directly in among 
the hills, following the bed of the Sweetwater river. The bottom land 
is now being settled up by farmers and gardeners, who were busy 
taking their first lessons in irrigation. The plantations of course are 
very young, the irrigation works having been finished quite recently. 
At Sunnyside there are a few older orchards of oranges and olives, but, 
as a whole, the country is uncultivated. 

Five minutes more and we are at the dam. There is no station, except 
a little wooden platform, and we had to scramble over a rough hill to get 
down to the dam. The gorge there is probably one hundred feet 
wide and several hundred feet deep, with almost perpendicular sides. 
There is no other vegetation visible than grass and a few low shrubs 
scattered around. It is a most excellent place for a danr. The Sweet- 
water dam is built almost entirely of masonry and cement, and, both 
as regards construction and size, is one of the very best in the world. 
It is built in the shape of an arch, with the convex part up stream, 
and gives an impression of solidity and safety not always found in 
structures of this kind. The masonry dam is forty-six feet wide at 
the bottom, at the top twelve feet. The length of the top is 340 feet, 
and at the bottom of the canon the base of the dam is about one hun- 
dred feet, while the height is about ninety feet in the center. At 
one end of the dam is a wasteway and gates for letting the water out 
in case of a flood. The gates slide on an inclined plane, and consist 
simply of three-inch boards with pegs in each end, which are caught 
by a hook when they are to be raised. The capacity of the wasteway is 
said to be fifteen hundred cubic feet per second, or as much as the Sweet- 
water river is ever likely to carry, even during flood time. For one who 
is accustomed to headgates and waterways in the Fresno canals, this 
waterway looks very small indeed. But the engineers say it is large 
enough, and we suppose they must be right. The water is delivered 
through a large iron pipe thirty-six inches in diameter, covered for 
some distance down the caiion with masonry. For 29,807 feet, this 
pipe line runs down the valley or on the mesa lands adjoining it. It 
will deliver fifty million gallons of water per day, and can now irri- 
gate ten thousand acres of land. The whole cost of construction was 
5^502,000, and the time consumed in building was two years. 

The reservoir, as it now stands, is a magnificent sheet of water with 
tributary watersheds of 186 square miles, and a water surface of about 
three and one-half square miles. It is a grand illustration of the 
enterprise of the San Diego capitalists, of the skill and success of the 
California engineers, and of what may possibly be accomplished on 
nearly every stream in San Diego county. It is a structure of which 
any country might be proud, and which has few equals and no supe- 
riors anywhere in the world. 

On our way back we meet a picnic party of schoolgirls, who with 
their teachers have spent the day in the country. They fill the cars 
with smiles and chat, with flowers in boquets and garlands, in baskets 
and by the armful. We are treated to flowers and to beautiful Muscat 



THB RAISIN INDUSTRY. 199 

grapes culled from the vineyards, — enormous bunches and berries 
almost as large as plums. These grapes are a revelation to me, grown 
here within the reach of the fogs of the ocean, and irrigated with 
water from the dam or flume. Verily, I have never seen choicer 
grapes anywhere, and I am satisfied that they could not be surpassed 
by any for raisins. What a fertile country this will be when irrigation 
is better understood and more practiced. Could we but see it when that 
time comes. 

RIVERSIDE. 

There is no place in Southern California where the effects of a close 
and intelligent study of horticultural matters are so visible as in River- 
side. Money alone may build villas and mansions; but the intelligent 
and ever watchful horticulturist alone can, out of climate, soil, water 
and capital, produce a Riverside. It is charming beyond description; 
it must be seen to be realized. The best time to get a full and good 
view of Riverside is early in the morning, just at sunrise, and there is 
no better place to view it from than the hill on which the Hotel Rubi- 
doux was to have been built. I arose before sunrise, and struggled up 
the steep hillside. It well repaid me for the trouble, as few more beau- 
tiful views can be had. The whole settlement can be taken in at 
a glance, — the town close by imbedded in orange groves and vine- 
yards, and the dense verdure of the country stretching for ten miles 
down the valley, and almost connecting with the yet farther off 
South Riverside. On the eastern side we see the San Bernardino 
Mountains, with the "Old Greyback," and between the mountains and 
the settlements a lower range of steep hills appear, which in a continu- 
ous range either bar the way or like isolated islands shoot boldly up 
from the mesa land. 

The Riverside colony forms a continuous settlement along the mesa, 
skirting the river, the deep green of the orange orchards harmonizing 
splendidly with the lighter green of the vineyards. At close intervals 
there are houses in every direction, with the bluest smoke rising 
straight up from their chimneys, and thence carried in long, tiny bands 
and columns down the valley just level with the tree tops. It is a pity 
the hotel on this hill was never finished — a great many more would 
then have enjoyed the almost unequaled view. An extension of the 
main business street in town leads up to this hill. On both sides of 
the street there are fine orange orchards and neat houses, — real country 
homes, sidewalks of cement where rows of fan-palms take the place of 
regular shade trees along their sides. The business portion of River- 
side is confined to two streets crossing each other at right angles. If 
we stand in the center of this crossing we take it all in, the houses 
extending a block and a half in the four different directions. Some of 
the houses and brick blocks are very large and expensive, while many 
again are smaller, but all are costly and elegant, with new and perhaps 
startling ornamental designs. Whatever Southern California does, it 
does well, and even the cheapest structures have an air of character 
and taste which can hardly be too much admired. 



200 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

When one speaks of Riverside he means the whole settlement that 
is irrigated, and to live in Riverside may mean to live in town, or it 
may mean a suburban residence ten miles away. In the latter locality 
the benefits of the country are happily combined with the luxuries of 
city life. Streetcars run from the center of the business part of town 
down to the end of the settlement. It is a cheap way to view the set- 
tlement to board one of these early cars. You can see as much as any 
one may care to see, but of course cannot stop and examine. The 
whole drive is one not to be matched anywhere else. From the mo- 
ment 5^ou leave town you pass orchards and vineyards separated from 
each other by only a road or cypress hedge. Every foot of ground is 
taken up. The main effort of all the settlers appears to be to make 
everything attractive, from the very sidewalk to the elaborate garden 
and the villa. Nearer town, every street has sidewalks of cement, and 
bordering them are continuous hedges of cypress trimmed in various 
styles, and in front of every house are lawns and plats of shrubbery 
and flowers, as neatly kept as if visitors were expected day or night. 
Some of the villas partake of the character of mansions, with towers, 
balconies and painted windows, while here and there in some of the 
finest orchards are yet seen some of the first houses built, small and 
unpretentious. The individual tastes of the owners are clearly dis- 
cernible. One has a row of palms running along his sidewalk, an- 
other has palms and grevilleas, while others prefer the pepper and gum. 
The manner of trimming the hedges is charming; it has here become 
quite an art. Some hedges have square, others roofed tops, and at 
every corner there is a little pillar of cypress with diamond or globular 
top, not at all artificial or stiff. 

The vast majority of the plantations consist of orange groves. The 
color of the trees is splendid, every leaf being bright and shining, and 
there is no sign of smut or scale. The large and upright Seedlings 
are easily distinguished from the smaller but bushy Navels. The 
tendency is now to plant mostly the latter, and most of the old Seed- 
ling trees are being budded over. The original Navel tree, which is 
the prime cause of the prosperity of Riverside and of the fame of its 
oranges, is yet standing by a modest cottage, which appears not to 
have kept pace with the times. The tree is small, perhaps twelve feet 
high, having been constantly cut back for buds. From this tree have 
sprung all the rest. No other Navel tree imported from Brazil or 
Australia resembles it in quality of fruit or in bearing capacity. It is 
probably a chance "sport" originally importedby the Agricultural De- 
partment at Washington, its companion trees being different in the most 
essential points which make this variety so valuable and so famous. 
This lieautiful and choice orange, now generally known as the "Wash- 
ington Navel," is slightly oblong or egg-shaped, and the skin is very 
smooth, with no ridges at the poles, the latter being characteristic of 
the other Navel varieties. The crop of Navels this year is good. 
Many growers expect from three to four boxes to the tree, and, as each 
box brings from three to four dollars, it is evident the business pays. 
The valuable and permanent improvements everywhere show this to 
be the case; the account books of the grower need not be searched to 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 201 

demonstrate it. Here and there we also see a lemon orchard with its 
larger trees of a different green. A few years ago many lemon orchards 
were dug up, as no one understood the secret of saving the lemons till 
the warm season, when alone they can bring a good price. But at last 
one of the growers wrung the secret from Nature, and now buys up all 
the young lemons he can find and stores them away to be used from 
six to ten months later, just when they are most in demand. In com- 
pany with that courteous horticulturist, the editor of the Riverside 
Press, E. W. Holmes, we visited this gentleman, G. W. Garcelon. To 
him is due much credit for having discovered the process. He pre- 
sented us with lemons of the small and proper size that had been 
picked green eight months ago. They were equal to the best imported, 
both as to smallness of size, acidity, thinness of skin and quality of 
juice. These lemons bring now five dollars per box, at which price 
lemon culture proves more profitable than that of the orange. 

The only variety that should be planted is the Lisbon lemon, the 
Eureka having too bitter a peel, and the much recommended Villa 
Franca being round and thus unacceptable. We passed several vine- 
yards, the Muscat vines being large and the vineyards well kept. The 
grapes are just ripening, but it will be some two weeks yet before they 
are ready to cut. The only variety grown here is the Muscat of Alex- 
andria, the real Gordo Blanco being unknown, or at least not generally 
planted. 

The far-famed Magnolia avenue is near at hand. The center is occu- 
pied by a continuous row of old pepper trees, with gracefully drooping 
branches, under which the cars run. The outside rows are different in 
various places, generally palms with alternating grevilleas, or gum or 
pepper trees. The custom now is to replace the outside trees with 
palms, and many of the stately gums are being cut away. Beyond the 
sidewalks are the trimmed cypress hedges, and behind them orange 
orchards, only interrupted by open lawns and gardens partially hiding 
the tasty dwelling-houses of the horticulturists. All that we see, now 
so luxuriant and beautiful, is the effect of water on the otherwise bar- 
ren plains. Everything is irrigated several times a year by means of 
flowing water brought from distant points, from the mountain caiions, 
or from the artesian wells in the river bottom higher up, several miles 
away. 

The canals are all on the highest ground, and are dug on technical 
principles. There is no washing and no filling up, no broken-down 
gates and overflowing and stagnant ponds. Some ditches are cemented, 
and look magnificently clean, without any weeds or mud. The water 
in them is like the water of a spring, clear and pellucid. In course of 
time all the ditches will be cemented, the cost for doing the work being 
paid for in a short time by the water saved and the absence of the 
necessary cleaning out. 

Riverside is indeed to be envied its Chinatown. The latter was, 
some years ago, moved a mile from town into a hollow, and now every 
house there is surrounded by cypress hedges and windbreaks of cypress 
and gum. Moreover, every house there is connected with the sewer- 
age system, and the usual smell is not noticed on the outside. Indeed, 



202 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

one can drive by and not know the nature of the town, for it looks 
like any other country village, almost hidden in evergreens. 

In a few weeks the raisin harvest will commence, and from that time 
on Riverside, along its whole extent, will be life and bustle. When 
the grapes are all in, the oranges will be ready for harvesting, and the 
country will again boast of its thousands of carloads of the golden fruit. 

REDI^ANDS. 

We have reached the object of our journey in the upper end 
of the San Bemamino valley. One of the features of South Cali- 
fornia, not Southern California, as we in the center all used to 
say, is the motor roads, not electric motors, but regular little steam 
engines, that will pull you anywhere, and which will not shock you 
with anything except perhaps with their smoke. Such motor roads 
lead almost everywhere, connecting the outlying colonies way up in 
the mesa with the headquarters on the regular railroad. And these 
motor roads are neither neglected, nor do they go begging for custom- 
ers and freight. They are as much or more patronized even than the 
regular railroads, and they pay well. The cause of this is evident. They 
are more accommodating; they can without inconvenience stop wherever 
required, and passengers get on or off at almost every corner. The 
little train stops with equal readiness at the call in front of the rich 
man's villa, to enable him and his family to embark, as at the poor 
man's garden, to allow him to get on with a load of greens or with a 
basket of eggs. Thus managed, it rushes along with short and fre- 
quent stops, always full of passengers and freight. 

Going up the San Bernardino valley from Riverside is a trip that no 
one should neglect. It takes us through one of the best improved 
parts of South California, through a veritable garden spot, with a 
radius of six or seven miles. From Riverside we pass for several 
miles over the level mesa land, just brought into cultivation through 
the new Gage canal system. Over two thousand acres have been 
planted here within the last two years to oranges, lemons and vines, 
and the fine and regularly planted trees with the large distances 
between show us how much the new settlers have been able to profit 
from the experience of the older ones. For several miles there are 
young plantations, each with its neat and substantial residence and 
outhouses, indicating that the settlers mostly are people of some means 
and of much refinement and taste, — just the class of people that 
we all would choose for our nearest neighbors. Eveiy where are school- 
houses of artistic designs, most magnificent ones in the older settle- 
ments, smaller but tasty ones in those of almost yesterday. As we 
pass along the mesa, the upper San Bernardino valley, closed in by 
steep and lofty mountains, lies on our right, and in front the Santa 
Ana river courses through the center of the valley, with its vast 
broad river bottom covered with wild vegetation, pastures or cultivated 
fields. We cross several ditches, one laid in cement, with the water 
running in them as clear as that in the washbowl. 

Once across the river bottom we are almost directly at Colton on the 
Southern Pacific Railroad. The first thing that attracts our attention 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 203 

is the beautiful plantation on the railroad reservation. Fine green 
lawns, fountains, beds of evergreens and flowers, the whole inclosed in 
pepper trees, gives the traveler immediately the impression that some- 
thing beautiful in the way of gardening can be accomplished, where 
there is only a will and a taste. Such beautiful places everywhere in 
the South show that the people who came here, came not alone to 
make money, but also to enjoy life and to cultivate those^ pleasures and 
occupations which help to prolong and beautify the same. 

From Colton up to San Bernardino the whole country is settled up 
and resembles the outskirts of a large city, where the business men 
have their suburban residences. The level and gradually sloping 
mesa is dotted over with little hills and knolls, just the place for a resi- 
dence. Every such place has been taken advantage of, and fine resi- 
dences with towers, balconies and airy awnings crown every little 
eminence, each one through its peculiar situation seemingly domin- 
ating the valley. 

San Bernardino has been greatly benefited by the boom. The old 
and the new are there in strong contrast, the new decidedly predomi- 
nating. Magnificent brick blocks grace the principal business streets, 
and the nearest streets crossing them, blocks that must have cost large 
sums of money, and which for design and substantial structure can 
nowhere be surpassed in any city of this size. The fine large hotels 
erected lately are kept up with style and even splendor. The large 
Stewart House is not inferior to the best town hotel that can be seen 
anywhere, and its interior arrangements, with a large covered court, 
are most admirable. My stay in San Bernardino was only too short ; 
a long stroll around town and a little longer shake hands with the 
veteran journalist and horticulturist, L. M. Holt, took all the time I 
had to spare. 

From San Bernardino to Redlands is but half an hour's ride through 
the bottom lands of the Santa Ana river. We approach rapidly the 
upper end of the valley, where the elevated mesa spreads out all around 
like a perfect ampitheater, backed by the loftiest mountains in Southern 
California. The mesa is now in close view, and Redlands, Lugonia, 
Terracina, Crafton, all difierent points of the same settlement, lie in 
front of us at an elevation of about fifteen hundred feet above the sea, 
like a map or extensive panorama, where roads, orchards and houses 
are so clearly and distinctly seen that they can be observed at a glance. 
The mesa land here slopes about four hundred feet to the mile, and 
the different orchards or settlements lie apparently one above the 
other, all in full view. If I am asked for the place in this part of the 
country with the finest view, with the freshest air, with the purest 
water, and with the coolest breezes, and where business and the com- 
forts of life can be combined, I will say, and say it again, Redlands. 
In all these points there is nothing here that surpasses it, and few are 
the places indeed that even can pretend to equal it. From whatever 
point we stand, be it at the lower end of the railroad depot, at any 
orchard or home in the center of the settlement, or at the upper end 
close to the rolling hills, from every point we see every other point, 
some below, some above us, all equally distinct. And this extensive 
and magnificent view, that requires no tedious and tiresome climbing 



204 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

to see, extends away down the valley for sixty miles, over slightly 
rolling hills, over level mesas with their dark-green orchards and vine- 
yards, over the steeper hills, over the lofty Sierra Madre range in the 
northwest. If we turn to the right we are immediately met by the 
snowy peaks and the bare walls of the San Bernardino range, here and 
there cut by the canons and gorges of the tributaries of the Santa Ana 
river. 

The business part of Redlands is as neat and tasty as any, — brick 
blocks and cement sidewalks, horse cars, and water under pressure. 

No explanation is required to be made of the quality of the Red- 
lands climate and soil. A trip over the settlement will reveal all to 
any one with open eyes. Orange orchards, young of course, but 
thrifty, on every side, alternating with Muscat vineyards, according to 
the taste of the owner; beautiful homes of the horticulturists, the 
stately mansions of the bank presidents and those that became wealthy 
quickly, and the grand view common to all, — these are some of the 
good things this settlement enjoys. The water for irrigation is all 
under pressure, either coming to the surface in open flues or in iron 
pipes. The orange orchards are being irrigated everywhere, in a way 
which should make a San Joaquin valley man stare. Iron pipes are 
laid all over the orchard, and at the beginning of every row of trees 
there is a faucet. These faucets are all opened at the same time, and a 
tiny stream of water issues forth and runs on each side of the young 
orange trees down to the other end of the check. It is left to run for 
several days at k time. At the other end of the check the water is not 
wasted, but runs into a little wooden spout at every row of trees and 
through the same into a cement ditch which carries the water to 
another place. The system of irrigation is simply perfect; if it were 
not so, the land could not be irrigated. With this system there is no 
waste, no weeds, no malaria, no hoeing nor other work of any kind. 
Irrigation is here as easy as the washing of your hands in a patent 
washstand: you open the faucet and let the water run. The general 
opinion by people not acquainted with the colony is that water here is 
very scarce; this is a mistake. There is water enough to irrigate all 
the land; most of it is now only running to waste to the sea; to be 
utilized it must only be stored. The Bear valley reservoir, when per- 
fected, as it soon will be, will hold water enough to irrigate over 
twenty-six thousand acres of ground, which is about all the irrigable 
land tributary to Redlands. There are other reservoir sites in the 
mountains, and the possibilities of future irrigation can hardly be 
comprehended. Although young, only four j^ears old, the upper San 
Bernardino colonies produce already considerable quantities of fruit. 
Six thousand acres are now under cultivation, eight hundred of which 
are in Muscat grapes, the balance mostly in oranges and other fruits. 
Last year they produced fifty carloads of grapes and forty carloads of 
raisins, and altogether about 149 carloads of fruit, dried or fresh. No 
better showing could be expected of any place, and there is no better 
advertisement of the resources of the country, 

I have yet a thing to add, a thing to praise. Everywhere in the 
South magnificent drives are laid out, avenues are planted with shade 
trees, evergreens and palms, street cars take you everywhere,- and the 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 205 

comforts of pedestrians and riders are always assured. The roads are 
all sprinkled, and the dust is an unknown quantity except in by-lanes 
and corners, where the sprinkler cannot reach. Riverside sprinkles 
the whole of her business streets, and her Magnolia avenue effectively 
and continually for about ten miles down the valley. Other places do 
the same, perhaps only not to as liberal an extent. In many places 
the tired pedestrian finds little wooden benches to rest on under a 
shady tree, close to a fountain of drinking water, all placed there by 
the kind society, W. C. T. U. Comparisons are not in place; but how 
many times I have wished such a thing had been met with in some 
other places I know of where the sun is just as hot, and where the dust 
is just as deep. 

AN HOUR IN A PACKING-HOUSE. 

The following sketch of a Fresno packing-house, where already cured 
raisins are bought and packed, may prove interesting to those of my 
readers who have not had time or opportunity to visit any similar estab- 
lishment. The same kind of work is going on in each packing-house, 
whether it be large or small, except that the number of hands are 
varied. In the two or three largest packing-houses in Fresno, as many 
as four hundred hands are sometimes employed at one time when the 
work is pressing ; as it slackens, less hands are used. These large city 
packing-houses are all situated close to the railroad ; they buy the 
raisins already cured and dried from the colonists, who bring them in 
sweatboxes to town. The time of the greatest activity is from the last 
week in August to October 15 th. The largest of these city packers are 
Messrs. Cook & Langley, who own packing-houses both in Riverside and 
Fresno ; Shacht, I^emcke & Steiner, successors to George W. Meade, 
the oldest packing-house in Fresno, superintended by H. W. Shram ; 
Chas. I^eslie & Co. , Griffin & Skelley, etc. 

The pioneer packing company of Fresno, known as the Fresno Raisin 
& Fruit Packing Company, is doing at this time a large business. Every 
day five or six carloads of raisins are sent away, while a string of from 
twenty to thirty, two and four horse teams are waiting outside of the 
weighing shed to have their raisins weighed and received. These raisins 
come both from large and small vineyards from all over the country, but 
principally from the colonies, where they are the products of twenty- 
acre vineyards. Some of the best raisins in fact came from the smallest 
vineyards, where they had the best care, and where the owner has 
given the vineyard all his time. Mr. H. W. Shram, the superintendent 
of this large and oid packing-house, has had years of experience in the 
packing business, and has followed the Fresno raisin business from its 
infancy. As soon as the raisin boxes are unloaded they are immedi- 
ately weighed. It takes eight men to attend to this part of the busi- 
ness, one weighing and one clerk to keep accounts. The dried wine 
grapes, such as Zinfandel, Malagas, and even Sultanas, are immediately 
wheeled into the steramer-house to be separated from the stems and 
cleaned. This stemmer is one of the largest in the State, and the only 
one of its kind as regards construction. It stems, cleans and assorts, 
in from three to four different grades, sixty tons of raisins a day. Nine 



206 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

men are working this machine, some feeding, others pushing wide but 
shallow boxes under the spouts, others again wheeling them away 
when full. The steam engine of ten horse-power and boiler are fired 
principally with separated stems, refuse raisins, and stones of peaches 
and apricots. The separated dried grapes are packed and shipped in 
eighty-pound sacks, and go in this way to the East, or even to Europe. 
Every day one or two carloads of these dried grapes are shipped. The 
Muscatel layers, however, go first to the sweating-room, before any- 
thing is done with them. This sweating-room is one hundred by fifty 
feet, and has the walls and floor filled around with one foot in thickness 
of sawdust, so as to prevent the outside air from entering. This sweating 
room is constantly filled with raisin boxes from floor to ceiling, and 
seldom contains less than forty tons of raisins at one time. It takes 
from ten to thirty days to equalize the moisture in the raisins as well 
as to properly soften the stems so that the grapes will not fall off". 
This is of the utmost importance. If it is not done the stems will 
break and the berries fall off", and instead of a first-class layer raisin we 
would only get a first-class loose. 

After having sweated for several weeks the raisins are brought out to 
be assorted. We see several rows of oblong tables, each one with a 
border around like a deep and large tray, and with a hole at each end 
in which the loose raisins are pushed. It takes eighteen of these tables 
to receive the grapes to be assorted, and as it also takes six girls at 
each table, it is evident the work is one of great importance. Only 
girls are used, as boys and men could not as properly do the work. It 
takes a girl's nimble fingers to handle the raisins, so that none break. 
They are also more patient, and are, in every way, suited for the work. 
As the raisins are being assorted, the diff"erent grades are clipped from 
the same bunches, and placed in different trays. Thus one and the 
same bunch may contain four diff"erent grades of raisins. Each one is 
separated at these tables, to make different brands of raisins. The 
trays, with five pounds of raisins each as they leave the graders, are 
placed in large piles on the floor, and are from there taken away at 
leisure, first to be packed and afterwards to the press. This is a 
department of its own. It takes great experience to press the raisins 
just so much, that they will look well, but not so much as to 
burst. A broken raisin will sugar and spoil, and would cause com- 
plaint and dissatisfaction. The public is constantly being educated 
as to what fine raisins are, and now wants only the best. Each tray 
is pressed, and it takes four trays to make up a box of twenty pounds. 
A tray is placed over the box, the sliding bottom is pulled out, and the 
whole cake of raisins with paper and all drop in the box below. 

After the raisins are assorted they have to be packed. Twenty girls 
are occupied with this, the most pleasant, but also the most skillful, 
work in the packing-house. No bad raisins go in here, and if any 
there should be, they are separated and placed with a lower grade, as 
even one or two raisins would spoil an otherwise good box. This 
requires a great deal of care and attention, but the girls are being edu- 
cated, and the same ones are re-engaged from year to year. Fresno is 
getting an army of girls educated for the business, and we find much 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 207 

less trouble now to get the raisins well packed than a few years ago, 
when everything was comparatively new. Now there is hardly a girl 
in any of the colonies, who does not know something about raisin- 
packing, and who is able to make good wages during packing time. 
Several cents a tray are paid for packing, and many girls earn two 
dollars a day, while none earn less than one dollar a da5^ The first 
quality raisins are packed under the Lion Brand, while the second 
quality goes by the name of the Golden Gate. Both brands are equally 
popular and are readily sold. The loose raisins are as important as 
the bunches and layers. The American housewife has learned that 
she gets more for her money if she buys loose raisins than if she 
buys layers, which always contain a large percentage of stems. Loose 
raisins are therefore now very popular. The loose raisins have all been 
sweated, and the best of them liave come from large, fine bunches, 
from which they have simply dropped off, and magnificent they look 
indeed as they are separated and graded into several grades, the largest 
of course to make the very choicest brands. The process of packing 
is quite different from that of packing layers. In loose, the boxes are 
simply filled with fifteen pounds of loose raisins ; then a tray contain- 
ing five pounds, and which has been faced, is placed on top, this 
making up twenty-pound boxes. 

The facing is a most important and interesting work. It takes 
from forty to fifty girls to do it, and only expert hands are allowed at 
the facing tables. The facing consists in placing large, fine and flatted 
raisins in layers on top of the box, as an advertisement that the con- 
tents underneath are equally carefully assorted and choice. A careful 
and skillful facer can face forty boxes a day, while from twenty to thirty 
boxes is a low average. Mr. Shram buys raisins and dried grapes from 
every one who has any that are really choice. For Feherzagos three 
to three and one-half cents are paid, for Malagas four cents, and for 
Muscatels three and one-half to five cents, according to quality. All 
the work in the packing-house is done by piece work, and from two to 
five cents are paid for different qualities of the work, such as assorting, 
picking over, picking and facing. Four hundred girls and boys are 
daily employed. The present raisin pack, Mr. Shram affirms, is the 
best of any he has ever handled. They are shipped to every large town in 
the East, and are constantlj^ increasing in demand. Besides raisins, 
Mr. Shram handles peaches, figs, apricots, and in fact any dried fruit 
we have. Tons and tons of Adriatic figs are brought from the colonies 
every day at six cents per pound, an enormous price when we consider 
the yield of a fig tree. But, says Mr. Shram, they are in demand, and 
as long as we can sell them again when packed and sweated to advan- 
tage we can afford to pay a good price. 

When sufficient boxes are packed, they are loaded in cars and made 
up into trains exclusively loaded with raisins. The various packing- 
houses combine to do this. Generally during the packing season two 
such train-loads are sent away every week, each one consisting of from 
ten to fifteen cars of raisins, each car containing one thousand boxes. 
Five hundred and thirty such cars were shipped from Fresno last year 
(1889). Some of the packers packed one hundred thousand boxes each. 



RAISIN GROWERS AND THEIR VINEYARDS. 

The following sketches are intended to convey to those not living in 
the raisin districts of our State an idea of the men who have made a 
specialty of the raisin industry, — men through whose experiences and 
intelligent work others are now profiting. 

While the raisin growers and packers can now be counted by the 
hundred, and while all of them have in some way contributed to the 
development of the industry, and as such deserve to be mentioned in 
the annals of this industry, it has only been practicable to here refer to 
a few of the most prominent. Where exactly to draw the line was not 
easy to decide, and my intention has been not to slight or neglect any 
one, and should any one find himself omitted he should account for it 
through my ignorance of real facts. I should especially hav^e wished 
to add to these short notes more extensive accounts of the work and 
vineyards of R. B. Blowers of Woodland, of the late G. G. Briggs of 
Davisville, and. of Robert McPherson of McPherson, but I have not 
been able to procure the necessary data. These three gentlemen have 
all greatly contributed to the development of the high standing of the 
raisin industry in this State. 

G. G. BRIGGS. 

Mr. Briggs was the first large raisin-grower in the State, and owned 
vineyards in both Solano and Yolo counties aggregating seven hundred 
acres or more. Subirrigation by means of perforated pipes, in which 
the water was made to circulate under pressure, was first tried extensively 
in Mr. Briggs' vineyard at Davisville, by which means the grape crop 
was almost doubled. Later on Mr. Briggs planted extensively in the 
Washington Colony at Fresno, but he died before his vineyard there 
came into bearing. He is said to have imported raisin grapes direct 
from Spain, and a grape now growing in the vineyard of G. E. Free- 
man at Fresno is said to be of that variety. It resembles the Muscat 
of Alexandria in growth, but the berries are those of the Gordo 
Blanco. Mr. Briggs advised to give the raisin-vines more room, and 
following his ideas several vineyards as well as his own vv^ere planted 
with the vines ten by sixteen feet. 

R. B. BLOWERS. 

R. B. Blowers of Woodland, Yolo county, planted his first vines in 
1863, and produced his first raisins in 1867. From 1870 to 1873 he 
planted the principal part of his vineyard. He was the first one in 
California to do any really careful packing, and he may justly be said 
to be the father of the raisin industry in this State. Mr. Blowers was 
the first to irrigate the raisin-vines by means of pumping and flooding, 
for which purpose he constructed his afterwards so famous well. The 
first successful raisin dryer was invented and built by him at a time 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 200 

when every one else doubted the propriety and desirability of drying 
grapes by artificial heat, and the dryer thus constructed has never yet 
been surpassed. One of the characteristics of the Blowers dryer was 
the blower or suction fan, by which means the air was changed in the 
dryer, the moist air being sucked out, while dry air was allowed to 
rush in. Mr. Blowers improved nearly every branch of the raisin 
industry, and studied every operation, such as plowing, irrigation, cur- 
ing and packing, more thoroughly than any one ever did before or has 
done after him. Mr. Blowers' raisins were the best in the State at their 
time, and wherever exhibited received the first premium. At the World's 
Fair at Philadelphia, they received the first premium, and attracted 
much attention. I may add that Mr. Blowers is the inventor or at 
least the perfector of the ' ' face-down ' ' method of packing, the best 
method for packing raisins. Mr. Blowers has published a short essay 
on raisins, referred to elsewhere in this book. 

ROBERT Mcpherson. 

Robert McPherson was for Southern California what G. G. Briggs 
and R. B. Blowers were for the Northern part. The McPherson vine- 
yard extended once over 360 acres of land, and one year he shipped over 
one hundred thousand boxes. Many of the practical devices for irriga- 
ting, curing and packing raisins now generally in use in the southern part 
of the State were invented by him. The McPherson vineyard was 
situated in Orange county in the southern part of this State. Robert 
McPherson was certainly the largest and most prominent raisin-grower 
in Southern California. He is now no longer in the business. 

T. C. WHITE. 

The ' ' Raisina ' ' vineyard was the first thoroughly conducted raisin 
vineyard in Fresno. It was planted by T. C.White in 1876, '77 and '78, 
and from that time gradually extended until it contained one hundred 
and twenty acres, of which sixty-five acres are in Muscatel grapes of 
the variety known as Gordo Blanco, brought there from the Blowers 
vineyard at Woodland. The vineyard also contains some Seedless 
Sultanas and White Corinths. The soil of the vineyard is white ash, 
the location two miles south of Fresno, in the old Central California 
Colony. The soil is now partly subirrigated. T. C. White has done 
a great deal to develop and perfect the packing and curing of raisins, 
and he has also given much time and study to the other branches of the 
industry, such as growing, pruning and cultivation. Through the 
study of the imported Spanish raisins, as well as of those produced by 
R. B. Blowers, Mr. White succeeded in packing a very superior brand, 
which has never been surpassed in this State. The brands packed at 
the Raisina vineyard were as follows : Dehesa Clusters, lyondon Layers, 
California Layers, Loose Muscatels, and cartoons of two and one-half 
pounds. The largest pack at one time was thirteen thousand boxes of 
twenty pounds each. In order to "face" the boxes accurately and 
rapidly, T. C. White invented the facing-plate elsewhere described in 
this book. Experiencing considerable difficulty in properly facing his 



210 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

Dehesas, it occurred to him that a block or plate might be made with 
cavities in which the raisins could be placed quickly and without danger 
of being disturbed. His idea was entirely original, and the facing device 
as made by him is a perfect machine which has not been improved 
upon. This device is now covered by patents. 

In packing T. C. White employed the Blowers' method, or the "face- 
down" method, which he so improved upon that it has not since been 
excelled. Many of the fine points in raisin curing and packing were 
perfected by him, and the raisin industry will always be benefited by the 
work he has done. Below I give a list of the premiums taken by T. C. 
White's raisins at various fairs: 1885, silver medal and special first 
premium for best raisins at Mechanics' Fair in San Francisco; 1886, 
first premium and gold medal at the Mechanics' Fair in San Francisco ; 
1888, first premium and one hundred dollars for best raisins at the 
State Fair. Safne year they received first premium and gold medal at 
the Fresno District Fair ; 1889, first premium at the Fresno District 
Fair. 

MISS M. F. AUSTIN. 

The story of Miss M. F. Austin and her success with the Hedge Row 
Vineyard reads like a beautiful tale. A schoolteacher by occupation, 
Miss Austin possessed many prominent qualities and elevated ideas, 
among others that horticulture should become a business for women as 
well as for men. Acting upon these ideas, Miss Austin removed to 
Fresno in 1878 in company with a lady friend and teacher, Miss L,. H. 
Hatch, and she began immediately to improve her Hedge Row Vineyard, 
a part of which had been planted two years before by Bernhard Marks, 
the founder of the Central California Colony. The vineyard was grad- 
ually extended until it contained one hundred acres, nearly all in Gordo 
Blanco vines. Miss Austin must be given credit for having improved 
upon many operations in the vineyard and in the packing-house. She 
first discovered that under proper conditions the sulphuring should be done 
in the flowers of the grapevines. By this method she one year largely 
increased her crop of grapes. In packing she showed her womanly 
taste and refinement, and not only succeeded in producing superior 
Layer and Dehesa raisins, but made several innovations in packing 
which to this day are imitated. Among these we may mention the 
packing in cartoons, and in small ornamented paper bags, which latter 
were again placed in paper boxes. Miss Austin and T. C. White were 
the originators of fancy packing in this State. 

The largest pack of the Hedge Row Vineyard was seventy-five hun- 
dred boxes, while the total of one year's pack reached sixteen thousand 
boxes. Miss Austin built the first raisin dryer in Fresno, and demon- 
strated that machine-dried raisins were a success if not a necessity as* 
regards the last crop. The pluck and intelligence of Miss Austin soon 
became extensively known, and many were the ladies who, imitating 
her, engaged in horticulture and in the raisin industry. Fresno county 
and the State at large owe her a debt of gratitude for what she has done. 
Those who had the pleasure and honor of her friendship lost in her a 
dear and faithful friend, a brilliant and intelligent companion, and a 
person who had few equals in any path of life. 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 211 

JOSEPH T. GOODMAN. 

The owner of the Floreal vineyard arrived in Fresno in 1879, ^"d 
purchased a then already started plantation, which, however, he soon 
greatly remodeled, enlarged and improved. Mr. Goodman, formerly 
one of the brilliant newspaper men and literary writers of this coast, 
and publisher of the Territorial Enterprise of Virginia City, Nevada, 
has probably more than any other man studied the characteristics and 
requirements of the raisin grapes. His vineyard, while not the largest, 
is in our opinion the best cared for in the State, and newcomers could 
perhaps not do better than learn from it. It now comprises one hun- 
dred and twenty acres, mostly in Gordo Blanco. For the curing of the 
grapes, thirty thousand trays or more are needed, while a separate pack- 
ing-house and tray-shed are prominent features of the vineyard. The 
land was all leveled with great care before planting, and every check 
can be flooded if necessary. The soil is the very richest, being the 
chocolate-colored loam, which in Fresno is considered the best and 
strongest soil for Muscat grapes. The location of the vineyard is the 
old sink of Red Bank creek, in the same district where Forsyth's and 
Butler's vineyards are situated. As regards planting, pruning, sulphur- 
ing, topping and other vineyard operations, Mr. J. T. Goodman is 
an authority from whose verdict there is no appeal. The Floreal vine- 
yard always bears good crops, which must be exclusively attributed to 
the care given the vineyard and to the judgment with which all opera- 
tions there are conducted. Mr. Goodman has invented several appli- 
ances for facilitating the vineyard work, most prominent among which 
I may mention the vineyard truck, by the means of which the expenses 
of harvesting and some other vineyard labors are greatly reduced. He 
also suggested the facing-plate independently of T. C. White. 

A. B. BUTLER. 
The largest raisin vineyard in Fresno county or in the State of Cali- 
fornia, as well as in the world, is owned by A. B. Butler. The vineyard 
is situated about three miles southeast of Fresno, on the sink of Red 
Bank. It contains about six hundred acres, nearly all of which is 
planted in Muscat grapes of the Gordo Blanco and Alexandria varieties, 
and a few Sultanas. The vines are planted at various distances, such as 
ten by sixteen feet, and six by twelve feet, etc. The pruning is all ' ' low 
standard," except the Sultanas, which are staked four feet high. The 
only trees in the vineyard consist of two or three avenues of fig and 
poplar interspersed with fan palms, while some poplar trees line the 
outside boundaries of the vineyard. The first vines were set in 1879, 
and since that time the planting has been carried on until the whole 
six hundred acres are now in vines in full bearing. Mr. Butler himself 
superintends the general work of the vineyard, and during the packing 
time carefully watches the packing. The latter is accomplished in a 
large building containing packing-rooms, storerooms, steam dryer, sep- 
arator, box factory and storeroom for labels. The dryer has a capacity 
of fifty tons charge of green fruit, and is considered one of the best in 
the State. There are two dr>'ers, the large one just mentioned and one 
smaller, of twenty-five tons capacity, situated in the center of the vine- 
yard. The Butler raisins are celebrated all over the continent, and are 



212 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

most excellently packed. The labels used are very fine and are manu- 
factured to order in France. The principal brand packed is "Butler's 
Cluster Raisins." 

Mr, Butler acquired much experience in Spain, where he spent con- 
siderable time studying the raisin business. The output of the vineyard 
has been as high as one hundred thousand boxes per year. Similar to 
the other vineyards in this district, the soil of the Butler vineyard is 
among the very best in the county, all now subirrigated. Mr. Butler is 
the largest packer in the State, and his raisins have gained a continental 
reputation. As regards Spanish methods of packing, Mr. Butler is 
better posted than any other packer in the State. An interesting essay 
on Mr. Butler's experiences in California and in Spain is published in 
monthly California for March, 1890. The crop this year promises to 
be of extra quality. 

WILLIAM FORSYTH. 

The owner of the Forsyth vineyard and the producer of one of the 
two finest brands of raisins in this State arrived in Fresno in 188 1, and 
planted his present vineyard of one hundred and sixty acres in 10S2 
and 1883. The vineyard is situated in the sink of Red Bank creek, 
some four miles east of Fresno, and consists of heavy reddish or 
chocolate-colored soil of unusual richness. The vines used are almost 
entirely the Gordo Blanco variety, with a few Sultanas. The land is all 
leveled, was irrigated the first year only, and is now subirrigated and 
drained, requiring no further irrigation of any kind. The vines, set 
eight by eight feet, are pruned low, and given short spurs. The out- 
buildings consist of a packing-house, and equalizing or sweating house 
combined, thirty-five by one hundred and seventy feet. A dryer of late 
pattern, with steam boilers and flues, has a capacity of forty tons at a 
charge. The houses for the laboring men as well as the Colonel's 
dwelling-house are most elegant and complete, and show the care and 
refined taste of the owner. Over fifty thousand trays for drying the 
raisins are used in curing, the trays being three feet square, large 
enough to hold thirty pounds of grapes. The grove of palms, orna- 
mental and shade trees, the flowers and shrubbery surrounding the 
Colonel's home in the center of the vineyard, are all models of beauty 
and testify to the culture and prosperity of one of our foremost raisin - 
growers. 

The vineyard produces yearly from fifty to sixty thousand boxes of 
twenty pounds each, of the highest quality of raisins. The raisins arc 
remarkable for their high grade and even packing. The brands arc : 
Forsyth's Imperial Clusters, the "Tiger" brand and the "Forget-me- 
not" brand. During the packing and picking season some two hun- 
dred and fifty hands are employed daily in the various departments, all 
under the direct supervision of Colonel Forsyth himself, who has 
gained his experience both by practical work in California and by \-isits 
to the raisin districts of Spain. During the latter he has gained mucli 
experience about foreign methods, which he has not been slow to apply 
in his own business. As regards location, the Forsyth vineyard is not 
surpassed by any, and as regards appointments it is the most complete 
and handsome establishment that can be found anywhere. The For- 
syth raisins excel in quality of berry, grade, uniformity of size and 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY, 213 

In the elegance and care with which they are packed. They stand at 
the head of the California raisin product. Col. Forsyth has been 
appointed Commissioner for California at the World Fair in Chicago, 
1892. 

A. D. BARLING. 

Among our younger raisin-growers and packers, Mr. A. D. Barling 
occupies a prominent place. A sketch of his life and connection with 
the raisin industry is most interesting. He came to the raisin district 
with only a dollar in his pocket. To-day he is a wealthy grower and 
packer, whose raisin brand is among the best in the State. 

Mr. Barling, formerly of Michigan, was educated at Ann Arbor. In 
1873 he left college and started West, settling in Merced county, Cali- 
fornia. There he became connected with the Farmers' Canal Co., as 
their chief engineer, which position he held for seven 5'-ears, and in that 
capacity conducted the water of the Merced river down to Livingston 
on the S. P. R. R. From Merced he went to Mexico in the employ of 
the Mexican Central Railroad, but returned to San Francisco, California, 
in 1882. Here he had charge of the construction of the large wharf at 
Alameda point, then being constructed by the S. P. R. R. Co. 

Becoming tired of working for a salary, Mr. Barling went to Fresno and 
rented a lot in the Central Colony. By dint of hard work, not having 
any capital at all to start with, he and his wife saved one thousand 
dollars, with which they purchased the present El Modelo vineyard, pay- 
ing forty-five dollars per acre for the rough land in 1885. Mr. Barling 
and his wife went to work with a will and set out the land in Muscat 
cuttings, but through unfortunate and unforseen circumstances all the 
first planting was lost. Undaunted they replanted in 1886 with great suc- 
cess, and to-day they own one of the finest and best-paying 150-acre 
vineyards in the county, having yearly added new territory to the first 
purchase. Last season they packed sixteen thousand boxes of Muscat 
raisins, and established the El Modelo brand, which in the market is 
considered second to none, and which has established an enviable repu- 
tation for its packers. This year's pack is estimated to reach fifty 
thousand boxes of twenty pounds each. Mr. Barling's thorough edu- 
cation and skill and experience as an engineer has materially contribu- 
ted to his success. He has also held the position of assistant cashier in 
the Fresno Loan & Savings Bank for the last five years. 

FRANK H. BALL. 

The Ball Vineyard adjoins the town of Fresno, and is situated in 
the rich red lands, the sink of old creeks. The one hundred and 
twenty acres in Muscatels are among the best cared for in the district. 
Mr. Ball possesses the faculty of doing the necessary work at the right 
time and doing it thoroughly. The crop is annually sold in the sweat- 
boxes to packers in Fresno City, no raisins being packed on the vine- 
5'ard. Mr. Ball is the author of an excellent essay on raisin-grape 
growing and curing, published in the California for July, 1890. His 
methods of culture and curing are the best, and the raisins produced 
by them are not surpassed by any in the State. Mr. Ball is one of our 
most successful raisin-men. 



214 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 



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LITERATURE. 

The literature of the raisin industry is a very scant one, and as far 
as I have been able to ascertain not a single work especially devoted to 
this industry has appeared in any language. The various cyclopedias 
contain articles on raisins, but they are all more or less confused and 
unreliable, and of no great use to any one who wishes only reliable 
information, and who must depend upon the same for practical pur- 
poses. As regards California, much information has been given about 
raisin growing and curing in almost every newspaper published in the 
State. To mention them all would be to enumerate all the papers of 
the Pacific Coast. I can here refer only to a few of the principal ones, 
where the student who has time and inclination to follow up the subject 
may find material for a more detailed history' of the raisin industry 
than the one I have written. 

First among these papers I must mention the Pacific Rural Press, 
edited by that distinguished horticulturist, Professor E. J. Wicksou, 
and published by Messrs. Dewey & Co. of San Francisco. In the files 
of this weekly, from 1873 to the present time, 1890, may be found 
scattered many interesting articles referring to our subject. A paper 
contemporaneous with it was the San Francisco Merchant, which con- 
tained many interesting articles on raisins and raisin grapes, especially 
during the period from 1881 to 1887. In the issues of the Press and 
Horticiilturist of Riverside, San Bernardino county, California, we find 
during a series of years occasional notes and articles referring to the 
raisin industry of that section of the country. As regards the Santa 
Ana and Orange county district, the Anaheim Gazette will prove the 
most reliable guide, as recording the rise and decline, and, as we believe, 
also the revival, of the raisin industry of that section. The Yolo 
Democrat and the Woodland y7/^z7 published at Woodland, Yolo county, 
have devoted much space to the raisin industrj^ of that section. In 
Fresno county the Fresno Republican, between the years 1882 and 1887, 
contained v.^eekly a separate department for viticulture and horticul- 
ture edited by the author of this book, and that paper has ever afterwards 
devoted much space to recording the progress of the raisin industry of 
the country. The Fresno Expositor, the oldest paper in Fresno county, 
has contained much information about raisin grapes and vineyards since 
1873, when the first raisin-vines were planted in the county. During 
the period from 18S8 to 1S90, this paper contained almost daily edito- 
rials upon the raisin industry, mostly contributed by this author. 

The California Friiit Grower, a weekly horticultural paper mentioned 
below, has since its beginning a few years ago made dried fruit its 
specialty, and has contained many important articles on our industr}\ 
and in its columns may be found the most reliable raisin statistics pub- 
lished in this State. The San Francisco Examiner contained in 1888 a 
series of articles on raisins, contributed by this author. The San Francisco 



216 THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 

Chronicle has from time to time given much space to the raisin industry, 
and its horticultural editor, George F. Weeks, has most ably contribu- 
ted to the dissemination of knowledge about our California raisins. A 
special raisin edition of this paper appeared February 2 , 1 890. Another 
San Francisco paper, \h^ Journal of Comme^xe, contains much information 
as regards raisin statistics and the progress of the raisin industry general- 
ly, and its files may be consulted with much interest and profit. Among 
Eastern journals I wish only to call attention to the Fruit Trade 
/(7z^r;za/ published at New York up to date (June, 1S90) ; it contains 
weekly statistics of raisin sales, etc., all of great interest to the grower 
and packer. An important contribution to the history of the raisin 
industry is the work by Professor E. J. Wickson, — "California Fruits, 
and How to Grow Them." It contains several chapters on grapes, 
most conscientiously written and very rehable. This book will always 
remain as a standard work of reference upon the subject. Professor 
E. W. Hilgard has during a number of years published essays upon 
topics related to our industry, all most valuable to the practical grower. 
They are enumerated below. 

I may also mention the Rural Californian, published in lyOS 
Angeles. It devotes from time to time some space to the raisin industry 
of the southern part of the State. In the Reports of the State Board 
of Horticultural Commissioners will be found several papers upon the 
raisin industry, all mentioned below. Similarly the Reports of the 
State Board of Viticultural Commissioners contain several important 
and very interesting essays on raisins, etc., which are duly mentioned 
below. In these reports we find articles by T. C. White and W. B. 
West and others, as well as interesting discussions by growers. The 
Calif or7iia, a journal of rural industry, which commenced publication 
this year (1890), and is issued weekly and monthly, makes the raisin 
industry a specialty. It has already contained many articles contribu- 
ted by our most successful growers, such as A. D. Barling, T. C. White, 
A. B. Butler, Frank Ball, Wm. Forsyth, etc., and also by this author. 
In the way of illustrations, California is fortunate to possess a most 
exquisite work on grapes. We refer to the very fine colored prints of 
California grape varieties published by Edward Bosqui. Among the 
number are our Muscat of Alexandria and Seedless Sultana. Each one 
of these plates is a work of art, than which there is nothing superior 
produced anywhere. 

Below follows an enumeration of books, which to a greater or less 
degree refer to the raisin industry. For access to many of them I 
am indebted to the kindness of the proprietor of the Sutro Library, Mr. 
Adolph Sutro, of San Francisco, and to his librarian, Mr. George Moss. 

ANSTED, D.T.: Ionian Islands in 1863. Lon- Barling, A. D.: Culture and Curing. In Vol 

don i36, I, No. 4, of monthly Ca/;/<j;7/za, a Journal of 

ARQUIMBAU, JOHN D., United States Consul at Rural Industry, El yerano. Cal.; also in same 

Denia: Raisins in Denia. United States Con- weekly No. 14, April 12, ibgo. 

sularReports,No.4iH,pages6Siand682. 18S.,. Ceaujour, F..: TaWgau du Commerce de la 

Mr. Arquimbau is the largest packer in Va- GrSce. Pans, iSSo. „ . . , . 

lencia Blowers, R. B.: Report on Raisin-making m 
AUDIBERT. Joseph: Les Raisin Sec. Paris, California. First Annual Report of the State 

1884 This work treats almost exclusively of Board of Viticultural Commissioners, ban 

dried grapes imported from Turkey and Francisco, iSSi. PaRes 13 to 15. 

Greece to France for wine-making. Borde, Andrew: Breviary of Health 1542. 

BALL Frank H.: My Work in the Raisin Bulletin, The San Francisco: Published by 

Vineyard. MS. to be published in California Messrs. Pickering and Fitch, San Francisco. 

for July 1890 'rhe Bulletin was the first of the large San 



the; raisin industry. 



217 



Francisco papers to devote time and space to 
the horticultural and viticultural interests of 
California, and its weekly issues between 1875 
and 1890 have been full of valuable informa- 
tion upon these subjects. 

California, a Journal of Rural Industiy : 
Published by The California Company, San 
Francisco. Gustav Eisen, Horticultural Ed- 
itor. Contained a series of articles on Kaisins, 
by the author, commencing January, 1890, to 
date (June, i8go). 

Champin, Aime: Vine Grafting. Translated by 
J. H.Wheeler, in Second Annual Report of the 
Chief Executive Viticultural Officer to the 
Board of State Viticultural Commissioners 
for the year 1882-83, Appendix III. Sacra- 
mento, 1883. 

Chipman, Gen. N. P.: Report Upon the Fruit 
Industry of California. Published by the 
Board of Trade. San Francisco, 1S89. 

Chronicle, The San Fr.ancisco: Published 
by M. H. deYoung, San Francisco. This large 
daily paper contains in the weekly and Sun- 
day issues much valuable information about 
horticultural subjects. The issue of Feb. 2, 
1890, was especially devoted to the raisin in- 
dustry, and was most ably edited by George 
P. Weeks, its horticultural editor. 

Colmet: Dictionary of the Bible. 1838. Grapes 
of Eschol, seedless. 

CORYAT, TiiOMAf,: Crudities. Loudon, 1776. 

Davy, John: Notes and Observations on the 
Ionian Islands and Malta. London, 1842. 

Directory of the Grape-Growers and 
Wine-Makers of California; compiled by 
the State Board of Viticultural Commissioners 
of California. Sacramento, i838. 

DODOENS, Rambert (Dodonaeus Rembertus): 
Histoire dcs Plantes. Antwerp, 1557. 

DOWLEN, E.: Several Reports on the My.ste- 
rious Vine Disease to the State Board of Viti- 
cultural Commissioners of Cal.; published in 
the San Francisco A/erc/ia?it and yiticulturisl 
during 1889-90. These reports of carefully 
conducted experiments are highly interest- 
ing. 

Eisen, Gustav: Raisin -grape Growing. A 
series of articles on the Growing, Curing and 
Packing of Raisin Grapes. Published in the 
San Francisco Examiner, both in the daily 
and weekly, during the months of September 
and October, i8S3 ; also a series of articles on 
Raisins, in California for 1S90. 

English Sources: Under this heading I have 
referred to a pamphlet on Dried Fruits, by an 
unknown English author, privately printed 
andcirculated. Thepart pertaining'to raisins 
is very detailed and contains much informa- 
tion of which I have made free use in this 
book. It was kindly placed at my disposal 
by Mr. Thomas Nelmes, of Pasadena. The 
book being without title and the author un- 
known, I cannot refer to it in any other way. 
The pamphlet appears to have been printed 
in 1876. 

IvXAMiNER, The San Francisco: Published 
by W. R. Hearst, San Fi-ancisco. Contained 
during the months of Sept. and Oct., 1SS8, a 
series of articles upon Raisin-grape Crowing 
by the author of this book. In March, 1S90, 
appeared a special Fresno numher.with much 
information about the raisin industry (author 
unknown). 

Far low, W. G.: On the American Grapevine 
Mildew. Bulletin of the Bussey Institution, 
March, 1876. Boston, Mass. 

Galloway, B. T.: The Journal of Mycologv. 
Published by the U. S. Department of Agri- 
culture, Washington. Several volumes pub- 
lished in serial to date, 1890. Contains articles 
on Grape Fungi, etc. 

Grasset de Saint Sauveur, Jacque: Voyage 
dans les lies et Possessions des Venetiennes. 
Paris, 1800. 



Grocer and Country Merchant, The San 
Francisco: Published by Briggs and Har- 
rington, San Francisco. Devotes much atten- 
tion to raisins, as well as to other rural indus- 
tries of California. 

Hackluyt, Richard, Rev.: Principal Naviga- 
tions, Voyages and Discoveries made by the 
English Nation. London, 1589. 

Harkness, II. W.: Fungi on the Pacific Coast. 
Bulletin of the California Academy of Sciences. 
Vol. IL 18S6 to 1887. San Francisco, 18S7. 

H.ARTEMA, LuDOvicus DE : lu IIaklu3't. Prin- 
cipal Navigations, Soc. ed., p. 77. Mentions 
seedless raisins from the Town of Reame in 
Arabia Felix. 

Heap, G. H., United States Cousul-General at 
Constantinople : Fruit Culture in Turkey. 
United States Consular Reports, No. 4iK'> 
pages 726 to 740. 18S4. 

Hilgard, E. W.: Alkali Lands, Irrigation and 
Drainage, etc. University of California, Col- 
lege of Agriculture, Appendix VII, Report 
for the year 1S86. Sacramento, 1SS6. 

Investigation of California Soils. Appen- 
dix I, Report of the Professor in Charge, etc. 
University of California, College of Agricul- 
ture. Sacramento, 18S2. 

The Rise of Alkali in the San Joaquin 

Valley. University of California, Agricultural 
Experimental Station, Berkeley, Cal. Bul- 
letin No. S3. 

Abnormal Deposits on Vine Leaves. In 

same. Bulletin No. 70. 

Mysterious Death of Vines. Same. Bul- 
letin No. 70. 

Sulphuring of Vines. Same. Bulletin 

No. 56. 

Irrigation, Drainage and Alkali. Bulle- 
tin No. 53. 

Examination of Tule, Marsh and Alkali 

Lands. Bulletin No. 28. 

Le Brun (orBRUVN) Corneille: Voyage au 
Levant, Delft, 1700. Mentions seedless raisins 
in Persia. 

LiTHGOW, William: Adventures and Peregri- 
nations. 1614. 

Locke, John: Histoire de la Navigation. Paris, 
1722. 

Marston, H. C, United States Consul at Mal- 
aga: Fruit Culture in Malaga. United States 
Consular Reports, No. 41}^, pages 682 to 689. 
1884. 

Malaga Raisins. United States Consular 

Reports, No. 10. Republished in said Reports, 
No. 4iJ<, pages 691 to 693. 18S4. 

Mas et Pullat : Le Vignoble. Paris, 1876-77. 
On page 73, tome i, we find a figure of a Mus- 
cat of Alexandria with round berries, and 
which undoubtedly is nearly related to the 
Gordo Blanco. It is not the true Muscat of 
Alexandria. As synonyms are given Gordo 
Blanco and (Don Simon Roxas is referred to 
as authority) also Uva Zibeba. The latter is 
undoubted the same as our Muscat of Alex- 
andria. Another synonym is Muscatel Ro- 
mano, which again is only another name for 
Gordo Blanco. The French authors have un- 
doubtedly everywhere confounded the two 
varieties. In the same work, page 31, tome i, 
we also find the White Corinth referred to as 
the currant grape of Zante, which is erro- 
neous. 

Moryson, Fynes: Itinerary, containing Twelve 
Years' Travels through Turkey, France, etc. 
1617. 

NiEBUHR, Carstens: Description de 1' Arabic 
(Trans, from German). Copeuhague, 1773. 
Mentions "Kishmish" seedless raisins from 
Arabia. 

NovE.AU Duiiamel : On Traits des Arbres et 
Arbustes. Paris, 1815. On pi. No. 65, tome 
7, figures Muscat d' Alexandria. This variety 
diflfers from our Muscat of Alexandria by 
having the berries less tapering, like the 



218 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 



"Malaga." On pi. 72, tome 7, there is a figure 
of White Corinth, but the bunch is too loose 
to be characteristic. 

Pacific Rural Press: Edited by Prof. E. J. 
Wickson. Published by Dewey & Co., San 
Francisco; weekly. It contains in its pages 
occasional references to the raisin industrj-. 
The issue of Mays, 1S77, contained an article 
on Iluasco Grapes of Chile. 

Pallas : Voyages dans pi. Provinces de I'Em- 
pire de Russie. i, b 13, " Kyshmish " seedless 
raisin grapes from Astrachan. 

Pierce, N. B.: The Mysterious Vine Disease. 
Essay read before the State Horticultural 
Convention in l,os Angeles, March, 1890. 
Published in California, a Journal of Rural 
Industry, Vol. Ill, No. iS, pages 2 and 3, 1890. 

Plinius : Historia Naturalis. Lib. xiv., tap. iv, 
a, mentions raisins such as Duracinse and 
Amineans; cap.ii, i, Muscadellaand Apiaricc; 
c, Corinth grapes. 

RANDOLni, Bernard: Present State of Morea, 
Island of Zaute, etc. 1689. 

Reports of the State Agricultur.'VL So- 
ciety OF California : First Raisins Pro- 
duced in California. Sacramento, 1S63. Page 
88. 

Reports of the State Board of Horticul- 
ture OF California : Biennial Report for 
1^85 and 18S6 ; also Appendix for 1887. Sacra- 
mento, 1887. 

Third Biennial Report. .Sacramento, 1888. 

Official Report of the Tenth Fruit-grow- 
ers' Convention of the State of California, etc. 
Saramento, 18S9. 

■ Official Report of the Eleventh Fruit- 



growers' Convention, etc. Sacramento, 1SS9. 
■ Annual Report of the State Board of 



Horticulture. Sacramento, iS 

Richardson, Charles : Dictionary of the 
English Language. 1836. 

RoxAS, Don Simon : Essai sur les VarietSs de 
Vignes de I'Andalusia. Gordo Blanco is here 
designated as the raisin grape of Malaga. 

SCRIBNER, F. IvAMSON : Report to the Myco- 
logical Section of the Department of Agricul- 
ture. In the Reports of the Department of 
Agriculture. Washington, D. C, iSS6. 

Sxr.VENS, W. E., United States Consul at 
Smyrna: Fruit Culture in Asia Minor. Pages 
7 14 to 748 of United States Consular Reports, 
No. 41^. June, 1S84. 

Sturtevant, E. Lewis: Seedless Fruits. ?.Xe- 
moirs Torrey Bot. Club, Vol. i, No. 4. New 
York, 1S90. 



Tablado, Jose Hidalgo : Tratato del Cultivo 
de la Vid, y Modo de Mejorarla. Madrid, 
1873. This, the standard authority on viti- 
culture in Spanish, refers only briefly to the 
Gordo Blanco as the raisin grape of Malaga, 
and gives as synonyms Muscatel Romano 
and Muscatel Real, but the description of the 
grape is unsatisfactory. 

Tavernier, Jean Baptiste: Six Voyages in 
Turquie, etc. 1676. 

The California Fruit-Grower: Published 
by B. N. Rowley, San Francisco ; weekly 
Horticultural Journal. Contained during 1S89 
and 1890 several articles on raisins, among 
others: White Muscat of Alexandria, in No. 
2, Vol. VI; Statistics of Malaga Raisins; also 
article on Currants, by L. C. Crowe, etc. 

Vernge, F. de la: M4moire sure la Maladie 
de la Vigne. Bordeaux, 1S53. i PI. 

Warner, Richard : Antiquitates Culinarite, 
1791. Iilentions "The Forme of Curry," 1390, a 
work in which "Raysons of Coraunte" are 
first mentioned in English. 

West, W. B.: Raisin-making in Spain. First 
Annual Report of the State Viticultural Com- 
missioners. San Francisco, 1881. Pages 33 to 
39. 

Raisins and Shipping Grapes. Essay read 

before the Third Annual State Viticultural 
Convention in San Francisco, December, 1884. 
Published by the San Francisco Merchant in 
1884. 

Wheeler, J. H.: Bleaching Seedless Sultana 
Raisins. Annual Report ofthe Board of State 
Viticultural Commissioners for 1887. Sacra- 
mento, iSSS. 

Grafting to Muscats. Appendix 14 to the 

Annual Report of the Chief Executive Viti- 
cultural Officer for the year 1888. Sacramen- 
to, 18S8. Contains reports from forty-eight 
grape-growers as regards their views and 
success with the grafting of muscats. 

Wheler, Sir George : Journey in Greece. 
1682. 

White, T. C: Raisins — Drying, Packing and 
Preparing for the Market. Report of Sixth 
Annual State Viticultural Convention of Cal- 
ifornia. Sacramento, 1S88. 

Wickson, E. J.: California Fruits, and How to 
Cirow Them. Dewey & Co., San Francisco, 
1SS9. This, the standard work on fruit-grqw- 
i:ig in California, contains much reliable in- 
formation about the raisin industry of Cali- 
fornia. 



INDEX. 



PAGE 

Acamauia 29 

Acres in Raisins 48. 169 

Aetolico 29 

Agrotis loi 

Aidin 31 

Albuuol 12 

Alfilerilla 99 

Algarve 9 

Alicante 10, 15 

Alkali 72 

Andalusia 8> 9 

Antidotes for Alkali 74, 75 

Arabs 22 

Argentine Republic 59 

Argos 29 

Arizona I34 

Armona 214 

Arquimbau, J. D 21 

Arundo donax 20 

Ash-trougli '^3^ 

Assorting 138, I59 

Austin, M. F 39. 122, 210 

Australia 1 1. 59 

Australian Salt Bush 74 

Average Price 21 

Back-furrowing 115 

Bag-holders I57 

Bags 151 

. Bairdir 31 

Ball, Frank H 213, 216 

Barling, A. D 213, 216 

Baskets 18 

Bearing Quality . . , 79 

Belvidere 9. 10. 3^ 

Bermuda Grass 74 

Bidwell, Gen. J 44 

Bittern 73 

Borates 72 

Boxes 156, 180 

Brands of Raisins 15. 5^ 

Briggs, G. G 38, 41, 42, 89, 208 

Black Currants 9° 

Black-knot * 102 

Black Smyruas 10 

Bleeding 26, 128 

Blowers, R. B 38, 42, 20S, 209 

Bluestone 95 

Butler, A. B 20, 126, 211, 212, 216 

Butte County 44 

Calcium Chloride 73 

Calabrian Raisins 9, 10, 36 

California 97 

California Dipped 10, 149 



PAGti 

California Malagas 10 

California Raisin Districts 38 

California Sultanas 10 

California Sun-dried 10, I33 

Caiiezos 20 

Canvas Covering i45> H^ 

Carabourna 3^, 17^ 

Carbonate of Lime 72, 74 

Care of Currant Cuttings 25, 27 

Care of Vines in Smyrna 32 

Cartoons 156 

Cascalira Currants 3° 

Castellon I5 

Castille 8 

Catacolo y> 

Catcher ^40 

Caterpillars 100 

Cephalonia 27, 29 

Chains 131 

Chaintre System 127 

Chandler, S. R 121 

Chapman, W. S 38 

Chemicals 74 

Chenopodium 74 

Chesme Raisins 10, 31, 34, 176 

Chico 44 

Chile Guano i3 

Chile Raisins 11,36 

Chios 23 

Choice leavers I5 

Clark, R. G 39 

Clay for Grafting 26 

Cleaning i37, 160 

Cleats 149 

Climate. 12, 17, 30, 37, 40, 41, 48, 56, 60, 67 

Coast Vineyards 66, 67 

College City 44 

Collins, W. E 48 

Color 79 

Colure 57, 93 

Colusa County 44 

Consumption of Currants 29 

Cooking 18, 139 

Cooper, Elwood I47 

Copper Sulphate 95 

Corauntz 6 

Corens ^ 

Corinth 7, 22 

Corone 29 

Cortez of Cadiz 8 

Corynthe 7 

Cos 31, 67 

Cost of Valencia Raisins 176 

Cost of Vineyards 28, 35, 113 

Cotton Sacks 5^ 



220 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 



Covering 123, i j5 

Cowdung 27 

Crimea 38 

Crocker-Hoffman Reservoir 188 

Crop 40, 42, 47, 50, 54, 169 

Cropping.. 74 

Cross-plowing 115 

Crow, L- C 29 

Crusades 11, 23 

Cucamonga 48 

Cullera 15 

Cultivation.' 115, 131 

Curing.. 18,27,30,33,37,54,58, 133, 151 
Currants. .6, 10, 22, 106, 109, no, 11 1, 178 

Cutter-sleds 116, 131 

Cuttings 1 79 

Damage to Raisins 61 

Davy, Dr 61 

Debesa Raisins 7, 9, 13, 15, 87, 90 

Deilephila 100 

Delano 45 

Delmas, A. and D. M 38 

Denia 9, 15, 16 

Dibble 130 

Dipped Raisins 6, 10, 19, 33, 149 

Discoloration 139 

Diseases 16, 73, 93 

Disposing of Crop at Denia 20 

Distances of Vines. 13, 18, 25, 30, 46, 104 

Dodoens 7 

Double Plow 114 

Dowlen, E. 97 

Downy Mildew 95 

Drainage 84 

Dried Grapes 10 

Dryers 147 

Drying. 14, 20, 22, 33, 37, 58, 133, 139, 151 

Drying Floors 14, 146, 147 

Drying in tbe Shade 10 

Dry Season 60 

Duracinae 22 

Duty 177, 178 

Eisen Vineyard 38 

El Cajon....39, 55, 62, 63, 134, 195, 196 

Elcbe 15 

Eleme Raisins 10 

Elevating the Trays 142 

Equality Price 21 

Equalizing 162 

Erodium 99 

Erythroneura 42, 98 

Escondido 59 

Estremadura 8 

Etiwanda 48, 52 

Exhausting the Soil 76 

Exports 22, 34, 115, 176 

Extent of District 15, 30, 45 

Facing 157, 160 

Fall Rains 60 



PAGE 

Faro Raisins 10 

Feher Szagos » 92 

Fertilizing 75 

Figliatra 29 

Figs 177, 178 

Filling 166 

Finest Dehesa 15 

First Crop 135 

Flat Stacking 143 

Flavor 90 

Flooding 81 

Floreal Vineyard 89 

Fogs " 46, 66 

Follower 157 

Foreign Districts 10 

Forsyth, Wm 39, 212, 216 

Fowler 45, 214 

Frames 156 

Freeman, George A 89 

Fresno 39, 44, 134, 184, 185, 1S6, 187 

Frost 63 

Furrowing for Irrigation 82 

Gandia 16, 22 

Gargalino 29 

Gastuni 29 

Gila River Valley 59, 134 

Glauber Salt 73 

Goodman, J. T 39, 88, 211 

Gordo Blanco 13, 45, 50, 87, 8S 

Gould, E 41 

Grading 151, 153, 164 

Grafting 25, 1:7 

Graham, George 21 

Grasset, St. Sauveur 22 

Grasshoppers 102 

Great Reasons 5 

Grecian Islands 9, 74 

Gridley 44 

Grocers Compau}'^ 6 

Guadalaviar 18 

Gypsum 73, 75 

Hakluyt 23, 24 

Happy Valley 44 

Haraszth}', A 38 

Hardpan Soils 70, 71 

Harkness, W. H 95, 96, 97 

Harrowing 1 79 

Health of Vines 79 

Heap, G. II 34, 67 

Heat for Drying 139 

Highlands 48 

Hilgard, E. W 216 

Historical 5, 22 

Hoeing 117, 131 

Holland 7, 29 

Huasco Raisins 36, 89 

Hurdles 61 

Ideal Conditions 67 

Imbat 31 



THB RAISIN INDUSTRY. 



221 



PAGE 

Imperial Clusters 47 

Imperial Dehesa 15 

Importation 30, 38, 179 

Injury to Raisins 65, 139 

Insect Pests 93 

Ionian Islands 23, 26, 61 

Irrigation .... 17, 18, 37, 49, 54, 60, 77, 85 

Italian Raisins 36 

Ithaca 24, 29 

Jabea 16 

Jackson, Byron 150 

Jalon 16 

Jaraco 16 

Jerrea 16 

Jucar River iS 

Kalamata 29, 30 

Karabouruou 31 

Kaweali River 46 

Kells, R. C 121 

Kern 45, 46, 134 

Kettles 150 

Kyparissia 29 

Labeling Press 157 

Labels 169 

Labor 15 

Labors of the Year 124 

La Mancha 14, 65 

Land Scraper 105 

Land Plaster 73 

Large Black Raisins 35 

Large Red Raisins 35 

Latitudes 60 

Leaching 73 

Leaf-hopper 42, 57> 98 

Leon 8 

Lepanto 23, 29 

Lerdo 45 

Levante 65 

Lever-press 155 

Lexias 9, 10, 15 

Ligudista 29 

Liniits of Raisin Districts 60 

Lip ^ri 9, 22, 36 

Literature 215, 216, 217, 218 

Litbgow 24 

Lixivium 9 

Location 12, 6o 

Locke, J 23 

London Layers 15 

Longevity of Vines 70 

Loose Raisins 21, 158 

Lye 19, 149 

Lye-dipped 9 

Lyeometer 34 

Machine-dried Raisins 9 

Madeira 94 

Madera 45 

Magnesium Chloride 73 



Malaga 7, 9, 12, 15, 91, 134, 176 

Malaga (Cal.) 45 

Mai Nero 64, 98 

Marking out Vineyard 105 

Manilla Paper 158, 180 

Manuring 13 

Marbella 12 

McPherson Bros 39i 55 

McPherson, Robert 209 

Mediten-anean Basin 11 

Merced 45, 46, 182 

Merino 8 

Mesta 8 

Mildew 93 

Mirabelle Vineyard 31 

Mission Vines 98 

Missolonghi 29 

Modern Raisin Districts 11 

Modone 29 

Moisture 54, 66 

Morea 23, 27, 29 

Morysou, Fynes 24 

Moors 7, 16, 22 

Moss, Geo 2i6 

Murcia 8 

Musca 7 

Muscatels 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 43, 87 

Muscat ©f Alexandria. . 16, 50, 57, 87, 88 
Mussel Slough 44 

Nailing 167 

Nathaligo 24 

Nauplia 29, 30 

Naxos 23 

Neglected Vines 137 

Nice, Climate of 12 

Nisi 29 

Northern Raisin Districts 43 

North, J. W 39,52 

Off-stalk 21 

Oidium 93 

Oleander 214 

Olive Oil 150 

Olivo 16 

Olympia 29 

Ondara 16 

On-stalk 21 

Ontario 48, 52 

Orange County 39, 52, 145, 146, 189 

Orland 44 

Packing-frames 156 

Packing-house 153, 205, 206, ^07, 214 

Packing Raisins 14, 20, 151, 160, 164 

Palermo 44 

Pautellaria 36 

Paper 158 

Pasas 22 

Pasture Lands 8 

Patras 24, 29 

Pedreguer 16 



222 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 



Pergos 29 

Peronospora 95 

Petrasso 24 

Philaaipelus 100 

Phoeuician 16 

Pickers 137 

Picking 135, 180 

Pierce, N. B 97 

Placer County 43 

Planting 18, 25, 41, 53, 104 

Planting-bar 88, 130 

Plowing 114 

Plows 131 

Portugal 15 

Powdery Mildew 93 

Preparing L,and 25 

Presses 155 

Prices.. 34,38, 5-. 5^, 115. 170, 179 

Prodenia loi 

Production 22, 34 

Profits 51, 55, 58 

Pruning.. 13, 18,26,47, 124, 128, 131, 180 

Pupae loo 

Pylia 30 

Pylos 29 

Racemus 5 

Radiator 147 

Rain 12, 32, 55, 61 

Raisin Districts 10 

Raisin Grapes 87 

Raisin Packers 214 

Raisins 5 

Raisins, Import of 178 

Raisin Vineyards 30, 38, 104 

Raysins of Corauntx 23 

Reasons 5 

Red Currants 91 

Redding 44 

Redlands 48, 202, 203, 204 

Red Raisins 176, 177 

Red Spider 100 

Retoria 16 

Reversing 141 

Reysin 5 

Ringing the Branches 27, 123 

Rinsing 150 

K!;^'^ness 135 

Ripening 31, 33, 50 

Riverside 39, 48, 134, 199, 200, 201 

Roberts, Lewis 22 

Ronda 12 

Roof-stacking 143 

Rooted Vines 106, 112, 179 

Root-pruning 129 

Rosedale 45 

Rosine 5 

Ross, Newton 51 

Rotterdam Colony 182 

Royal, Finest Dehesa 15 

Quality of Raisins 18, 57, 79 



PAGB 

Saccharine 134 

Salt 73 

Salt River Valley 134 

Samos 31 

San Bernardino 39, 48 

San Diego 55, 192 

Sandy vSoils 70 

Sanger 45 

San Joaquin Valley 44, 181 

Santa Ana 14, 52, 55, 134, 145, I9=> 

Santa Maura 24, 29 

Scalding 19 

Scales i^l 

Sea-breezes 31 

Secadero 19 

Second Crop 136 

vSeedless Grapes 9, 90 

Seepage 84 

Selma ,45, 214 

vSequero 14 

vShasta County 44 

Slieep's-foot 88, 130 

Slanting the Trays 142 

Hrairna 9 

Smyrna Raisins 10, 30, 176 

vSoils. . . .12, 16, 25, 37, 41, 45, 49, 53, 56, 
60, 67, 68, 69, 70. 

Solano 41 

Solis 9, 10 

Spades 131 

vSpring Frost 64 

Spring Rain 60, 62 

Stabler, B. G 88 

Stacking 142, 144 

Stanchio 31 

Stationers Company 6 

Statistics 169 

Stems 136 

Stemming 151, 154, 158, iSo 

Stevens, W. E 32, 35, 61 

Stock for Grafting 121 

Strentzcl, Dr. J 138 

vSubirrigation 83 

Subsoil 70 

Suckering 129 

Sulphates 73 

Sulphuring 47, 121, 131, 180 

Sultana Raisins 6, 9, 10, 45, 135, 177 

Summer Pruning 128 

Sun-dried Raisins 9, 10 

Surface Water 48 

Sutro, Adolph 216 

Sutro Library 216 

Sutter County 43 

Sweat-boxes i.;8, 180 

Sweat-house 153 

Sweating 162 

Sweetwater Valley 55,59 

Taking-up 143 

Tehama County 44 

Temperature 31, 48 



THE RAISIN INDUSTRY. 



22i 



PAGE 

Teri-al i8 

Thermalito 44 

Thinning the Grapes 123 

Thompson Seedless 10, 43, 91 

Tin Boxes 15S 

Tools 106, 130 

Tray-catcher 140 

Trays 20, 148, 156, 157 

Trieste 29 

Trifylla 30 

Trimming 167 

Trucks 131, 137. 157. 160 

Tulare 45. 214 

Turkish Raisius 92 

Turning 140, 180 

Tying-over 122 

Tyra 31 

Uncinula 93, 94 

Uva Alexandria 11 

Uva Apiariae 7, n 

Uva Muscse 11 

Uva Passa 26 

Uva Zibeba 1 

Valencia Raisins. .9, 10, 15, 21, 175, 176 
Varieties of Grapes 13, 35. 37 



PAGK 

Velez Malaga 8 

Venetians 6 

Vergel 16 

Villa Joyosa 15 

Vine Plague 9^ 

Vostizza 24, 29 

Vourla 31, 176 

Ward, C. T 89 

Weed-cutter 116 

Weeks, George F 216 

Weighing 164 

West, W. B 216 

White Corinths 45, 9^ 

White, T. C...38, 122, 156, 209, 210, 216 

Wickson, E. J 216 

Winds 65 

World's Production 177 

Yerly 31. 176 

Yield 13. 55 

Yolo 41 

Yuba 43 

Zante 23, 29 

Zea 67 



Additional Notes for 1890. 



The first crop suffered considerably from mildew and climatic conditions unfavor- 
able to the setting of the grapes. The second crop, however, is large and very 
good, and altogether the yield is a satisfactory one. The prices have ruled higher 
than before and raisins in sweatboxes have been contracted for readily at from 5}4 
to 6^4 cents per pound or even higher. Wine grapes dried here sold for 3 to 4 
cents per pound, and Malaga and Feherszagos raisins have brought from 4 to 5 
cents. No such prosperous year has before been experienced by the raisin men of 
this State, and reports come in that many growers are realizing from $250 to I450 
per acre from vines in full bearing. 

The weather all through the summer has been unusually temperate and thus ver}' 
favorable to the full development of the grapes, and so far the drying weather has 
been very favorable for the proper curing of the raisins. Many new packing 
houses have been established, and the crop is being better cared for than in previous 
years. The health and general condition of the vines is better than it was last 
year and the vine plague is less virulent, and according to some reports even on 
the retrograde. The demand for the raisin product has never been as large as 
now and there will apparently be no surplus left over, as the demand is rapidly 
increasing. The above refers especially to the central part of the State, to Merced, 
Fresno, Tulare and Kern counties, where the prosperous season will encourage 
increased planting. In Southern California the crop will be fair both in quality 
and quantity. In El Cajon valley it is reported as very good, and as being one-half 
larger than last year. Prices here ruled to begin with at from 4'^ to 5 cents but 
rose rapidly to 5j4 and 6 cents in sweatboxes. 

The duty on raisins has this fall been raised from 2 cents to 2}.4 cents per pound, 
which insures an additional profit to the raisin men. 



Rain-fall of iSSg-go. — The rain-fall of 1889-90 in the Central and Northern 
raisin districts of California was as follows : 





Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apr. 


May. 


Total. 


Fresno 

Tulare 

Kern 

Yolo 

Yuba 


3.10 
4.17 
2.04 
8.14 
5-87 


1-43 

•43 

.22 

3 04 

3-73 


3.80 
2.60 

1-75 
9.62 
9.01 


2.16 

2-75 
1.20 
6.36 
4.44 


•65 
■74 
.16 

3-69 
4^65 


•92 

.81 

.24 

3-35 

6.71 


.29 
.22 

1.60 
1.85 


■25 

.20 

.06 

2.21 

2-55 


12.60 
II .92 
5-67 
3741 
38.81 



The above figures are from the "tables of rainfall in the principal agricultural 
counties" of California, compiled and published by Albert Montpelier, Esq., 
Manager of the Grangers' Bank, San Francisco, but no report is made of the rain- 
fall in the counties of San Bernardino and San Diego, and statistics of those 
counties are not at hand. 



Duty on Raisins. — The revised tariff of 1S90 makes the duty on imported 
raisins 2j4 cents per pound, an increase of J^ cent on the old schedule. Currants. 
Zante and others, are now on the free list and pay no duty. 



BAISIW BOXES. RtlSJH TRftYS. SWEftT BOXES. 

Kings River Lumber Co., 

SANGER, FRESNO COUNTY, CAL. 



San Francisco Office, 109 Gaiifornia St., San Francisco, California. 



Manufacturer of and Wholesale and Retail Dealer in 
all kinds of 

LuifirjoieMoQis^sasyiiniis m iumis. 



This Compauy has at Sanger the best appointed Box Factory, Door, Sash and 
Blind Factory and Planing Mill in the State. 



Special Mill Work of all kinds Estimated on and Furnished. 




ALL KINDS OF BOXES MANUFACTURED AND IN ANY QUANTITY 
RAISIN AND ORANGE BOXES A SPECIALTY. 



This Company manufactures, at its works at Sanger, Raisin Boxes of all sizes 

from the very best of Sugar Pine, cut from its own lands, which 

for quality of material, perfection of workmanship 

and printing have no equal. 



THE COMPANY HAS AT ALL TIMES IN STOCK AND FOR SALE 

LUMBER OF ALL DESCRIPTIONS, CRAPE STICKS, POSTS, SHINGLES, 
SHAKES, PICKETS AND LATH. 



ORDERS SOLICITED AND PROMPTLY EXECUTED. 




WATER TOWER AT LAKE VOSEMITE. 

YOSEJVIITE COIiOlSiY. 

This Colony is two miles from Merced City, California. Merced, from its iiuo fountains, is now 
known as "The Fountain City." It is the county seat of Merced County. The Southern Pacitic 
Railroad, a transcontinental line, pa^.ses through this place, from San Francisco to New York. The 
Oakdale Line from the north also starts from Merced City, giving direct communication by rail with 
Sacramento Valley, Oregon, Washington, and all points north. Merced City is the nearest point iu the 
San Joaquin Valley to the great Yosemite Park, and commands the only passable railroad route to this 
"World's (Greatest Wonder." Merced City also lies in a direct line from Yosemite, through Pacheco 
Pass, in the Coast Range, to Del Monte, on the Bay of Monterey. These great natural advantages are 
now being developed on a scale commensurate with nature's own great gifts. The largest and most 
costly irrigating canal in the United States has been completed, and is now discharging the crystal 
snow waters, fresh from the Yosemite Falls, into Lake Yosemite, one mile from this colony. Thus we 
find ourselves in the possession of a combination of nature and art, which present advantages in 
climate, health, water privileges, wealth of soil and their productions which are not as fully possessed 
by any other locality in California. And, as an enduring crown to our prosperity, we point t.. the late 
Actof Congress of the United States in setting apart the Yosemite Park, with lier giant Sequoia and 
sugar-pine forests, insuring and perpetuating the annual snow and rain on the watershed of our canal 
system. The Yosemite Colony contains about 5,000 acres, and is beautifully situated by the si<lc of 
Lake Yosemite, and bounded ou the north by the fine Colony of Rotterdam. " The Yosemite " ^^•as 
the first colony subdivided and placed on the market after the perfection of our irrigating syslcan 
two years ago ; and a large main ditch was then brought by the proprietor from Lake Yosemite to and 
through these lands. Young Orange Groves, Almonds, Prunes and Apricots, Figs, Pomegranates, 
Peaches, etc., etc., have already been planted; also several fine young Raisin Vineyard.s, of only two 
years' growth, which this autumn produced raisins of the most superior quality. The soil is from lour 
to twelve feet in dei.tli, with under strata of heavy, rich clay, which will always insure an abundance 
of moisture, when with proper irrigation. These lauds are all free from alkali, and about one-half of 
them situated on the rich, alluvial plain ; the other half are gently rolling, and extend into the red 
gravelly soils, so much prized for Olives, Oranges, Lemons, Wine Grapes and Strawberries , while the 
lower levels are especially prized for the famous Muscat Raisin Grape, as well as for the Prune, 
Almond, Pear, Apricot, Alfalfa and Vegetables. Merced City, situated one hundred and fifty miles from' 
San Francisco by rail,— one hundred miles from the coast,— in the center of the San Joaquin Valley, is 
also the exact geographical center of the State— north, south, east and west. 



We are not offering you land that has not been thoroughly tested to produce what we advertise. 
Neither are we olFering you hog wallows, salt grass and alkali flats ; but we oflfer you a block out of one of 
the richest fields of California. As to health, we challenge the whole world to surpass us. Our locality 
is free from malaria ; and fogs in summer and autumn are unknown in this dry and equable climate. 
Not only is our locality free from fog, and fanned by the gentle invigorating sea-breezes from the south 
and southwest, but we are protected from the harsh, desiccating northwest winds, offering a retreat 
to the weak and ailing; and its rich and attractive location contributes greatly to its charms. 

For scenic beauty it has but few, if any, superiors in California. Standing at the lake, or on any 
other elevated point on the Colony, a most inspiring panorama is presented to the eye. The vision 
reaches one hundred and fifty miles south and east, and takes in the ever snow-capped Sierra Nevada; 
thence south and southwest we follow the long blue line of the Coast Range to the Mt. Diablo, one 
hundred and thirty miles to the northwest, in the vicinity of San Francisco. Looking to the north and 
east, you see looming up the grand Sierra Nevada, with its mantles of perpetual snow, seemingly so 
near in the pure air that, although it is one hundred miles to the summit, strangers are almost tempted 
to quit the green colony fields and visit them as an afternoon stroll. 

A fine school-house has been erected on the Colony, at a cost of $5,000, and is now in good working 
order. Trees of one and two years' growth border most of the avenues, including Palms, Locust, 
Olive, Magnolia, Eucalyptus, Mulberry, etc., etc. 

Under our irrigation system the owner of the land purchases water from the Canal Company 
which is filed in the County Recorder's books, and is then inseparable from the land, and is always 
conveyed as a part of the realty. 

We now olTer you this land, together with perpetual water-right, at from 81.'50 to 5200 per acre, 
according to quality and location. No land will be deeded to any persons except actual settlers. As 
inducements to families, we will plow and prepare the land ready for planting, as our aim is to settle 
these lands with families. Payments may be made in installments to suit purchasers. We make the 
following liberal offer to those who do not feel able to pay cash for the land: The purchaser is to build 
and occupy a neat and substantial cottage; also build all needed outhouses, paint or whitewash the 
same, and plant the land to such trees and fruits as may be agreed to be the best. This done the first 
payment will be deferred for five years, one-quarter to be paid annually thereafter. Said sum agreed 
to be paid to bear eight per cent interest per annum from date of sale. Deed will be given purchaser 
when he builds and plants, and the purchase price secured by mortgage on the premises. A family 
with from $l,.'500 to $2,000 to make their improvements can settle down and safely wait until their fruits 
or raisia vineyard come into bearing. The whole purchase price should be produced from the lands 
the fifth year. 

For those who have not experience, or are desirous of avoiding the expense of team and tools, we 
will plant, cultivate, irrigate and care for their orchard and vineyard until it comes into bearing. It 
will be worth about S25 per acre to furnish and plant the first year, and $10 to $15 per acre each year 
thereafter. The above figures mean compensation for good, first-class work. 

We have already some fine planted tracts for sale, embracing Kaisin Vineyards, that will come into 
bearing next year (1891), also young Orange Groves, as well as deciduous Fruit Orchards. We also aim to 
keep a vacant cottage on the Colony, for the accommodation of each newcomer until such time as he 
can build ou a lot of his own choice. Deciduous Fruit Trees can be planted commencing January 1st, 
and as late as the 1st of April. Orange Trees in March and April. Grape vines, rooted or cuttings, 
should be planted in February or March. Peaches and Apricots will bear light crops the third year. 
Pears, Almonds, Figs and Oranges will begin to bear the fourth year. Raisins begin to bear, from the 
cuttings, in the third year. One year's time is gained by planting rooted vines. It is safe to expect $50 
per acre the third year from rooted vines, and $100 per acre the fourth year, at least, gross product. 
A respectable cottage should be built, with from four to five rooms, at a cost of from f.'JOO to $800 ; barn, 
8200. One pair of horses and harness, $150; milch cow, $25; tools, $25; wood is high, $7 i)er cord; 
flour, $3 to $4 per barrel of 200 Ib^. ; beef, from 6 cts. to 10 cts. per lb. ; hens, from $5 to $7 per doz( n ; 
eggs, from 25 cts. to 50 cts. per dozen; building lumber, $25 per M. in the valley or farming sections of 
the State. Male labor on the farm, $30 per month, except four or five months in the summer, when 
they receive $1.50 to $2 per day. Female labor has never been ample, and commands from $20 to $30 
per month. Families coming out here can bring with profit all clothing, bed-clothing, table cutlery 
and such articles as would not be bulky. Large furniture or farming implements will not l)ear 
transportation. 

The very favorable conditions existing for small farming in this rich valley of California, where 
water can be obtained to render crops certain, are not generally known in the East and Europe. For 
instance, our breadstuffs (wheat) must be shipped around Cape Horn to Liverpool to find a market. 
Beef and pork the same. Our wool also has to go around the Horn or across the Continent. The 
consequence is that the fruit farmer eats the cheapest bread and beefsteak of any people in the world. 
Our woolen mills are able to furnish the finest and cheapest clothing worn. Labor is high, and 
everything the small farmer produces is high, including poultry, vegetables and fruit, and will always 
be so. The big farmer can't get at this business with his steam engine and long sickle. We can close 
Europe and the United States out of the fruit-producing business, and force them to become consumers. 
Why? Because of the certainty of our crops, and because we have the whole valley for a drying house. 

Address or call upon the undersigned, owners and proprietors, 

V. C. W. HOOPER A. SON. 

Mkrced, Mercku Coixrv, California, 



EISEN & STEWART. 

Beai Estate aim portlcuttiiral Lann Ul^ii 

- DEhRfiO, * 



w 



E make "horticultural lands a specialty, and offer special 
bargains in the Kern and Tulare Irrigation District, 
and in the Poso Irrigation District, These lands are suited to 
Olives, Raisins, Oranges, other fruits and alfalfa. They are 
now cheap, but will soon rise in value, and become as high 
priced as any in the State. 

We also attend to the business of absent owners, and we 
guaranteee satisfaction. 
Corresponde7tce solicited. 



THE 



Yost Writing Machine 



Acknowledged by Experts to be The Best. 



The Yost is full of New and Valuable Improvements, and 
is guaranteed to do as represented. 



FOR CATALOGUES, TESTIMONIALS, ETC., SEND TO 

J. P. MIGHELL & CO. 

413 MONTGOMERY STREET, 

SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA. 



MAKES ABSOLUTELY 



Seedless > Raisins 



The Ysry best for Calinarj Use ! 



This Grape has been thoroughly tested in California, 
having been grown and raisins made of it, in Sutter County, 
for the past fifteen years. 

It is far superior to the Sultana, being much sweeter, 
a heavier cropper, more easily dried, and ripens earlier. 

For rooted vines, guaranteed true to name, address, 

B. G. STABLEE, 

YUBA CITY, 

Sutter County, California. 

Prices reasonable ; given on application for both one and two-year old rooted 
vines. Will also send sample of raisins, if desired. 



Described toy Prof. Bisen. 

In a communication to California, a Journal of Rural Industry, May No., 1890, entitled "With the 
Fruit Growers in Sutter County," Prof. Eisen thus refers to Mr. Stabler, and his work : "Mr. B. G. 
Stabler makes a specialty of dried peaches and seedless raisins, and has succeeded well with both. 
The principal raisin-grape of this vicinity is the little-known seedless grape, I<ady Decoverly, here 
known as the Thompson Seedless, he being the first to grow it. Years ago, about 1872, this gen- 
tleman saw advertised in an Eastern Catalogue a seedless grape, said to come from Constantinople, 
and was called the Lady Decoverly. It proved to be very diflferent from the common Sultana, being 
of yellow color, and of oblong shape. It is certainly strange that this singular variety of grape 
should have existed here so many years, and failed to attract general attention. It is an enormous 
bearer, heavier even than the Sultana, and ripens early in August. It makes very choice raisins 
for cooking purposes. The color is similar to that of the Muscatel, and makesa raisin of beautiful 
color. Among other novelties in the way of fruit, Mr. Stabler has a Chance Seedling Apricot, 
which promises to be something extraordinary. It is not yet in bearing, * * * but think of 
apricot leaves six inches in diameter, and limbs many times as long and strong as those ol 
ordinary apricot trees," etc. 



H 



H 



AND 



H p rv] 



iiu 




TO RENT AND FOR SALE. 



rjr nnn acres of wheat and sugar-beet land in the above 
/ U)UUU counties to rent for a term of years; also 100,000 acres of fine 
Raisin, Fruit, Alfalfa and Sugar-Beet Land, with water for irrigation, for sale in 
tracts of from twenty acres to large tracts suitable for colony purposes. 

For particulars apply to 

402 Kearny Street, 

SAN FRANCISCO. 



Fresno Agricultcral Works 

MANUFACTURERS OF 

Raisin • ♦ 
Machinery; 

ALL KINDS OF 

Vineyard Tools 

LEVELINCr and 
CANAL SCRAPERS. 

SEND FOR 

Descriptive 

Catalogue. 

-A.X)X)E,ESS, 

JAMES PORXEOUS, FRESNO, CAI.. 




GUSTAV EISEN, 

Horticultural Land and Raisin Expert. 



* 



. • • ;^ • • 



I liave had twenty years of experience in fruit growing, 
raisin-grape growing, raisin making, and in other horti- 
cultural industries, in California, Central America, Mexico 
and Europe. I make it a specialty to assist and advise 
those engaged in horticultural pursuits. Whether you wish 
to select land or plant it to vines and trees, whether you are 
a capitalist, the member of a syndicate or a farmer, my 
services will be a thousand times more valuable to you than 
the reasonable charge I make for them. If yon are not 
acquainted with land, soil, climate or the profits of the hor- 
ticultural industry you intend to engage in, you will find it 
to your advantage to engage me to make you thorough and 
truthful reports. 

All matters strictly confidential and charges reasonable. 

Address, 

GUSTAV EISEN, 

California Academy of Sciences, 

San Francisco. 



YOSEMITE 



Illustrated in 
Colors 



PUBLISHED BY 



H. S. CROCKER S COMPANY 



215 Bush Street, San Francisco 



It has no rival. Each book is wrapped in heavy 
paper and enclosed in a specially made box, suitable 
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p7'ovide an extra heavy box. Si~e of book, 12x16 inches. 



THE FINEST 
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Full Morocco, or Undressed Kid $15.00 

Half Undressed Kid 12.50 

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< ♦ »• 



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215, 217, 219 
B\JSH Street 

SAN FRANCISCO 



Mboleeale Stationers 
pi1nter0, Xitbotjrapbers anb iBooKbinbcrs 



A FULL AND ELEGANT LINE OF 



Fruit and Raisin LABELS and PAPERS Always on Hand 



OUR SPECIALTIES ARE 



Incorporation Outfits Bank Supplies Copperplate Engraving 
Map arid Pamphlet Printing of Visiti7ig-Cards and 

Stationery Outfits Wedding hivitations 



CORRESPONDENCE SOLICITED 



